TO: Prof. Ellis
FROM: Brandon Sosa  
DATE: October 27th, 2021
SUBJECT: Expanded Word Definition of Central Processing Unit (CPU)

[Introduction]

            The purpose of this document is to expand on the definition of “Central Processing Unit”. This word is mentioned multiple times throughout the CST (Computer Information Systems) department and is mentioned in the first introductory classes. I will be discussing the origin of the word and when the word was first introduced and who coined it. I will also be looking and researching through the dictionary and the references to find interesting information about the word. After, I will organize the information into each perspective category detailing its Context, Definition, and Working Definition. Then include my references at the end. 

[Definition/Etymology]

            There are various but similar definitions of “Central Processing Unit”. As a student who is in the field of Technology, I say that my own definition of what the Central processing unit is is that it controls all functions inside the phone, tablet, and computer. It controls the input and outputs of all the daily tasks the user is recommending. The Oxford English Dictionary, it states “Computing a component of a computer system that runs programs, performs processing, and controls and coordinates the activity of other components”.[1] This definition gives a vague but helpful description of what a central processing unit is. Some people researching the definition might need a more in-depth definition of what the word is. In the Oxford Reference text, I was able to find a definition of the word but in more detail. It said, “A CPU usually consists of two units: the control unit organizes the data and program storage in the memory and transfers data and other information between the various parts of the system; the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) executes the arithmetic and logic operations, such as addition, multiplication, and comparison.” [2] This definition in comparison to the first definition is a lot more detailed and it specifies what the CPU is doing inside the selected device. 

[Context]

            When comparing both definitions of the Central Processing Unit, it provides details about what it is and how it performs, on the other hand, the first definition is short and gives good but vague detailing about what it does for the computer/phone or tablet. The 2nd definition highlights and gives details on what the central processing unit is, how it works, the components that are inside of it to help run programs and execute tasks. What really stands out between both definitions are the keywords that there use. Both definitions have similar keywords, but the one definition uses keywords such as “ALU” when the other definition didn’t use it. In a textbook, when talking about the CPU the author goes in-depth about what the CPU is and what the main functions it is. His definition of the CPU is different from the 1st and 2nd definitions because the author is adding more context to it. The author stated “The CPU is responsible for manipulating data and coordinating the activities of the computer’s other physical components, including memory and peripherals. Instructions gathered from input interfaces are executed at the CPU, and the results are delivered to output interfaces. The CPU, therefore, functions as the heart of the computer, facilitating all data processing activity.” [3] This definition gives an accurate detailed description of what and how the CPU functions. It also makes the comparison of how it is “the heart” of the computer and that it controls all the task and programs that the user requests.

[Working Definition]

            In the CST department, when learning about the internal components of the computer, phone, or tablet the Central Processing Unit is always mentioned. In my own definition, I would say the Central Processing Unit is the heart of the computer. It controls all tasks and programs that come in by the user and it executes the task/programs all accordingly. The central processing unit is the brains of the entire operation and every commend must go through it so that it is executing functions at a timely matter. Throughout all the years, the Central Processing Unit will always be updated, it will never stay the same. There’s a saying that just because it’s not broken, doesn’t mean that it cannot be improved. 

[References]

[1]        “Central Processing Unit,” in Oxford English Dictionary. 3^rd ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press, Mar. 2013, def. 2. [Online]. Available:https://www-oed-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/Entry/29680?redirectedFrom=central+processing+unit#eid9942421

[2]        Butterfield, A., & Szymanski, J. (2018). memory. In A Dictionary of Electronics and Electrical Engineering. : Oxford University Press. Retrieved 12 Oct. 2021, from https://www-oxfordreference-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/10.1093/acref/9780198725725.001.0001/acref-9780198725725-e-2926.

[3]     Lerner, K. L., & Lerner, B. W. (2013). Computer Sciences. Macmillan Reference USA, a part of Gale, Cengage Learning. 

TO:              Prof. Jason Ellis
FROM:        Jiaqi Huang
DATE:         Oct 27, 2021
SUBJECT:  Expanded Definition of Virtual

Introduction

The purpose of this document is to elaborate on the word I pick for the expanded definition project. I picked three words at the beginning, virtual, network and space. The term Network is kind of a new word, it doesn’t have that much history than the other two terms. I can not get enough information for the expanding project. For the term space, we know it is a big prerequisite for everything to work normally, computer systems are no exception. But the term space is an old word and has various meanings in different areas. It can represent time, the universe, etc. Though it has such various meanings, the term virtual is more related to my major computer information system, and it is also more representative in the computer field, which means it is more close to a special word for a specific area. At least people now heard the term virtual will associated with computer stuff immediately. The term space is not only used in academic fields, we also use it in our daily life. That’s why I chose the term virtual instead of space. The term virtual has been clearly pointed out to the “virtual technology” in the past few years. As new technology in these years, virtual technology is relatively mature than others and there is considerable room for development, no matter the technology itself or in the applied fields.

Definition

The origin of the term “virtual” is borrowed from Latin and has a long history we can look back on. There are a lot of meanings of “ virtual”. At first, it represented “Inherently powerful or effective owing to particular natural qualities”[1] in “See if the Virtuall Heat of the Wine, or Strong Waters will not mature it.” from Sylva sylvarum. Most of the Other definitions at first also related to power. However, they were Obsoleted because it is no longer in line with usage habits or we can say it was too far away from how we use the term now. When people talk about virtual, it mainly means a kind of technology. In Proc. Eastern’s Joint Computer Conf actually used the term virtual at a description “The sole function of the virtual memory is to increase machine speed”,  which we can conclude it “being on or simulated on a computer or computer network.”[2]

Context

In the article “Virtual reality environment using a dome screen for procedural pain in young children during intravenous placement: A pilot randomized controlled trial ” there is a description using the term virtual. It stated, “Virtual reality (VR), often referred to as a virtual environment, is a computer technology that enables users to view or ‘immerse’ themselves in an alternate world, and it is attracting attention as a digital distraction technique”.[3] in this statement, the term virtual had been clearly defined as a kind of computer technology. The term virtual inherently carries a fake meaning, it presents something that does not truly exist in reality. That’s why the article used the statement “immerse’ themselves in an alternate world”, a world built by a computer that can not physically touch it. And just like what I stated in the definition section, the term virtual has totally different meanings in the past. Based on P. Miller’s Gardeners & Florists Dict, we can find the used the term virtual in a sentence that “the virtual Qualities of the Sun and Air, [vapours] are formed into Clouds.”[4] In this situation, we can consider that virtual is an inherent power of nature. In the 1700s, the secret of nature had not yet deciphered. The science ability in that age was not enough to figure out the physical principle so it is suitable to use the word virtual to present something powerful while unreachable. 

Work Definition

Obviously, in the computer information system field, the term virtual is the name of a kind of computer technology. From the past till now, virtual always carries the meaning of fake and out of understanding in the past, and artificially created, non-physical existing in modern science. Virtual is a technology with a lot of possibilities in various areas and it has a big room to develop. In industry and the medical field, it can provide a safer and more efficient environment for users’ training. In-game areas, it brings a totally new experience to gamers and a new direction to game makers, same for other art areas. So I will define the term virtual as a technology “being on or simulated on a computer or computer network”.

References

[1]”virtual, adj. and n.” OED Online, Oxford University Press, September 2021, www.oed.com/view/Entry/223829. Accessed 6 October 2021. 

[2]“Virtual.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/virtual. Accessed 6 Oct. 2021.

[3]Lee, Ha Ni, et al. “Virtual Reality Environment Using a Dome Screen for Procedural Pain in Young Children during Intravenous Placement: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial.” PLoS ONE, vol. 16, no. 8, Aug. 2021, pp. 1–11. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0256489.

[4]P. Miller, “Gardeners & Florists Dict,” The Oxford English Dictionary, Oct. 12, 2021. Available: https://www-oed-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/Entry/223829?redirectedFrom=virtual#eid

To: Prof. Ellis
From: Hamzat Olowu
Date: 10/27/2021
Subject: Expanded Definition Term: Data Structure

Introduction

The objective of this document is to accentuate one of the most important term for programmers and software engineers. This term is Data Structures, the focus of this paper will be on the etymology of the term, then it will discuss the term and its uses in different backgrounds under computer science. This paper will also focus on the way the term is used depending on the context of the articles or books in which the term has been used. The official definitions of the term will be provided first, term’s etymology will be provided after which the context of the words will be discussed. At the end another definition will be provided which will come from understanding the term’s etymology, definition, and the context in which it’s used.

Definition

 The term data structure according to the oxford English dictionary means “Computing the form in which a collection of data is organized, typically allowing for efficient access or manipulation of the data.” [1] According to this definition we know this term is coined for the computer science field, which makes this a unique term. If we look at the term’s etymology, the term was first used in 1960 in a sentence from the IRE Transactions on Space Electronics and Telemetry which states “The decoding program also includes provision for recognizing the time and data structure when partially camouflaged by noise.” [1] The sentence provides a better understanding of the term and shows that the term is being used in a computer science environment. The second time the term was used officially was in 1973 in a book called Introduction to computer science which was what set the standard for later uses of the word. Data structure can also be defined as “The logical or mathematical model of a particular organization of data.” [2] This definition is essentially the same as the first definition but it’s defining the term based on logic and math.             For computer science students the term data structure is made known from either a mathematics course or computer science course called data structures and algorithm. This shows how deeply entrenched in computer science the term is, other definitions for this term still haven’t escaped from the scope of computer science. According to a definition from the Britannica encyclopedia, data structure is a “way in which data are stored for efficient search and retrieval.” [3] The definition from the oxford English dictionary and the Britannica encyclopedia both have different wordings but the same meaning, one says, “efficient access” and the other says “efficient search and retrieval” which attest to the same meaning, further corroborating the fact that the term has the same meaning across different definitions, and it is most suitable to be used in a computer science environment.

Context

Perceiving the essence of the term entails more than just the definition of the term. The context of in which the word or term is used needs to be discussed to come to any kind of conclusion about the term. For this document, the focus is on data structures and in what context it is used. Based on what has been discussed in the previous paragraph data structure is a term that is mainly used in computer science settings, so the context of the word would hold a fair amount of computer science mixed within. This is seen in the book called Python Data Structures and Algorithms which states “A good understanding of data structures and algorithms cannot be overemphasized. It is an important arsenal to have in being able to understand new problems and find elegant solutions to them.” [4, P.1] The book was stating the importance data structures and its counterpart which is algorithm. The book teaches the different types of data structures and algorithms which uses them using a programming language called python. The term data structure in this book is an important concept that is being taught to students interested in computer science. Looking at how the term is being used in context from a different type of source might explain more about the term itself. A different type of source is an article and the one that was chosen for the sake of this writing is by Rhoda M. Gilinsky, a freelance writer who wrote about Teachers Learning Computer Methods: “Students with previous academic preparation in computer science or who want supplementary preparation can also select from more advanced courses, such as Information Structures and Algorithms, Computer Architecture and Programming Languages.” [5] The use of the term here is different as we did not detect the term data structure in the sentence instead term information structure was spotted. In this context, information structure is replacing data structure as data and information can be used interchangeably. The usage of the term in both contexts truly demonstrates the interpretation of the term data structure.

Working Definition

After the juxtaposition of the term’s usage in different context, another definition can be derived from the information provided in the last two paragraphs. Using this knowledge data structure can be defined as any layout information/data is stored. Whilst the definition is in essence equivalent to the ones provided by the sources of this document, it is less specialized. The difference between this definition and the others is that it is presented with generalized wordings which allows for the word to be used in almost any other settings rather than only in computer science.

References

[1]    “Data Structures,” in Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press, Mar. 2012, data n, c2. [Online]. Available: https://www.oed.com

[2]    R. S. N. and S. P. Suman, “The Role of Data Structures in Multiple Disciplines of Computer Science A Review,” The Role of Data Structures in Multiple Disciplines of Computer Science A Review – IJSER Journal Publication, Jul-2013. [Online]. Available: https://www.ijser.org/researchpaper/The-Role-of-Data-Structures-in-Multiple-Disciplines-of-Computer-Science-A-Review.pdf

[3]   “Data structure.” In Britannica Academic Encyclopædia, 12 Apr. 2017, [Online]. Available: academic-eb-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/levels/collegiate/article/data-structure/472173

[4]     B. Baka, Python data structures and algorithms: Improve the performance and speed of your applications. Birmingham, UK: Packt Publishing Limited, 2017. [Online]. Available: ProQuest Ebook Central.

[5]    R. M. Gilinsky, “TEACHERS LEARNING COMPUTER METHODS,” The New York Times, Jun. 3, 1984. [Online]. Available: https://www.nytimes.com/1984/06/03/nyregion/teachers-learning-computer-methods.html?searchResultPosition=5

TO:                Prof. Jason Ellis
FROM:          Rameen Khan
DATE:           Oct. 27, 2021
SUBJECT:     Expanded Definition of Linux

Introduction

The goal of the Word Expanded Definition Term memo is to emphasize on technical terms and temporal development, as well as compare and contrast its interpretation. And to highlight the most used words in the Computer Information System major. I looked up concepts such as networks, information technology and data analysis beside others related to CIS Major, and considered how extensive the word may be. Linux is the word I’ve picked for my Expanded Word Definition project. Other names I considered include Hardware, Software, CPU, RAM, Encryption, CenOS and Decryption. Based on my preliminary research, I would first describe the word’s historical use, implication, and signification. The earliest use of this word started in 1991 by L. B. Torvalds and in this project, I will talk about how this word has been used differently based on this use of a term over time. Sources that I looked into through (The City Tech) library database will be used to perform my expanded definition, and I wound up utilizing the Oxford English Dictionary, Gale eBook, Oxford English and IEEE Xplore to look for these phrases. My main area of interest in computers is networking and Linux is an important part of the operating system which manages a system’s hardware and resources, like CPU, memory and storage. Linux is also compatible with personal computers, mobile devices, tablet computers, routers, and other embedded systems.

Definition

Linux has a long history, dating back to 1991. This phrase has evolved over time to mean different things while maintaining the same notion. The Oxford English Dictionary Linux defines it as “An open-source operating system modelled on Unix, available in a number of different varieties for use in PCs, servers, and other computing devices” [1]. This Definition tells us that Linux is an open-source operating system which is the software that controls the hardware and functions of a computer, such as the CPU, memory, and storage. Continuing on to the next phase, the word’s definition had been more comprehensive of what it truly is. By 2002 a book was published which was named as “Advanced Linux Networking” by Roderick W Smith. This book talked about Linux being one of the most reliable, secure and worry-free operating systems available and embedded systems across the globe. According to Gale eBooks “Since its inception in 1991, it has attracted widespread attention because of its compatibility with different platforms, and also because Linux is considered by many users to be faster, more robust, and more economical compared to other operating systems.” [2]. The Linux operating system for computers was developed by a Swedish computer scientist. Torvalds began developing this system while a university student in Finland, and it is now freely available over the Internet. A Software developer Torvalds not only made one of the most widely supported operating systems. But also gave freedom to study how the program works and freedom to run the program, for any purpose.

Context

While Linux has been useful for over two decades, and how It is built in a variety of ways. Technology Researchers, Suchakrapani Datt Sharma, D.N Sonawane, Tanushri Chakravorty, Tushar Patil wrote in an article, the e-Learning era has brought in new ways of influencing education. According to this novel, “An E-learning system is networked, which makes it capable of instant updating, storage/retrieval, distribution and sharing of instruction or information; It is delivered to the end-user via a computer using standard Internet technology; It focuses on the broadest view of learning solutions that go beyond the traditional paradigms of training” [3]. In another word, E-learning methodologies are essential for both student education and employee career progression in the workplace. Moving forward to a different journal by Vincent F. Scalfani, who talks about how he switched from Microsoft Windows to Linux and why he now prefers using Linux. One of the reasons is, “Some of the reasons reported for using Linux are that it is available at no cost, can be customized, runs well on older hardware, and offers an opportunity to support free and open-source communities, which may be more in-line with personal or institutional motivations and philosophies” [4]. As I mentioned earlier, Linux is an open-source operating system which is software. And one of the most dependable, secure, and there’s no cost to enter… as in, it’s free. Linux can be installed on as many computers as you want without having to pay for software or server licensing.

Working Definition

All these definitions are similar in that they both illustrate how Linux can be useful in a variety of ways. According to definitions dating back to the 1991 and more current definitions. Linux is an operating system, just like Windows, iOS, and Mac OS. An operating system is a piece of software that controls all of the hardware resources on your computer or laptop. Simply explained, the operating system is in charge of coordinating the connection between your program and your hardware. The software would not work without the operating system (OS). Why Linux? To respond to that question, Linux has evolved into one of the world’s most dependable computer ecosystems. When you combine that dependability with the fact that there is no fee of entry, you have the appropriate desktop platform.

Reference

[1]      “Linux,” in Oxford English Dictionary. 3rd ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press, Dec, 2009, def. 1. [Online]. Available: https://www-oed com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/Entry/251510?redirectedFrom=linux

[2]      L. Fundukian. “Gale Encyclopedia of E-Commerce,” L. Fundukian, Ed. Gale, a Cengage Company, 2012. Available: Linux – Document – Gale eBooks (cuny.edu)

[3]      J. Lee, Y. Kim and S. Kim, “Design and Implementation of a Linux Phone Emulator Supporting Automated Application Testing,” 2008 Third International Conference on Convergence and Hybrid Information Technology, 2008, pp. 256-259, DOI: 10.1109/ICCIT.2008.84.

[4]      S. Vincent, “Using the Linux operating system full-time: Tips and experiences from a subject liaison librarian,” College & Research Libraries News. Oct2021, Vol. 82 Issue 9, p428-431. 4p, Oct 2021. [Online]. DOI: 10.5860/crln.82.9.428

TO:                 Prof. Jason Ellis
FROM:           Ulises Mora
DATE:            10/27/2021
SUBJECT:     Expanded Definition of Chromakey

Introduction

The purpose of this document is demonstrating the definition of the term “Chromakey,” the use of it in different contexts or scenarios, and my own definition. First, I will compare three definitions from three different sources, including an etymology definition. Then, I will collect some context in which this word is used; the use of this word on different fields in which it can be used; and how they are assimilated for the same function. Finally, I will present my own definition after this whole expanded research of the word.

Definitions 

People might be familiar with the word “Green-Screen,” as Chromakey is the technique that allows the Green-Screen to work. Both words are basically the same, but Green-Screen is the most common term used, while Chromakey is the real-fancy term. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, chromakey is: “A technique or process for selectively combining two different images to form a composite scene by filming in front of a coloured screen or background, used esp. for depicting live action in drawn, modelled, or computer-generated settings” [1]. This means that chromakey allows you to put two different images at once; basically, one project and one background, in which the Chromakey is commonly the background. Regarding its etymology, the definition and interpretation has been maintained since its origins, “1958   R. C. Kennedy & F. J. Gaskins in Proc. IRE 46 1798/1   A new process called ‘Chroma-Key’ is described. ‘Chroma-Key’ is an insetting or matting technique intended for color television which utilizes a highly saturated color background for the inset subject.” [1]. Proving that since 1958, Chromakey remains having the same function as it used to have when it originated. A definition from another source, the Canadian Oxford Dictionary, defined Chromakey as: “a technique or process for selectively combining two video images to form a composite picture, in which all areas of the first image that are of a particular colour or chrominance (usually blue) are detected, and are replaced by corresponding parts of the second image.” [2]. This definition shows more in detail how this process ends up as to what Chromakey is. They mentioned “usually blue,” but along the time, the green color became mostly used. This is because the green color “were generally preferred because they tended to produce less video ‘noise’ and ‘static’ during compositing.” [3]. 

Context

I found three sources in which the term “Chromakey” is used. The first source is a book called Broadcast Journalism, which is about different technical aspects of television and news, including personal and everything related to technology. In a section about the weather forecast, Eadie explains the illusion that they can create with the chromakey, where the audience can see the graphic design created behind the subject that gives the forecast: “The visual aids you see behind them on the screen. In reality, there is nothing behind them in the studio except a green wall. A technology called chromakey inserts the graphics electronically.” [4, p. 639]. Letting us know about the background change process, where everything green is digitally exchanged for another background; in this case, the weather graph that is presented in the weather news, due to the chromakey. 

Through an article from the New York Times, we can assimilate chromakey in the same way, and that the definition and use of this word does not change compared to the previous source. The article talks about a science fair for children that happened in Manhattan during the 90’s, in which one of the expositions involved a special background effect. Leimbach says: “While the child manipulates the cameras, including a chromakey, which can superimpose Mom against a snowy backdrop and create the illusion that she’s flying. The results are then projected onto monitors.” [5]. Again, chromakey is where magic happens to completely change the background and create an illusion for anyone looking at something completely different on the monitor, all due to a completely green setting (mostly.) However, the chromakey does not necessarily have to be used only to exchange one background for another background; this technical tool also allows the background to completely disappear. According to streamscheme.com, a website to help anyone who wants to start streaming, Luci says:” Live-streamers generally use a green-screen to block out their backgrounds entirely, allowing their viewers to see more of their content.” [6]. This means that chromakey is used to make more than just a background. In movies, especially fiction movies, chromakey is presented in scenes where people must levitate something; there is a person disguised completely in green, this person becomes invisible through chromakey, allowing this illusion of levitation to occur.

Working Definition 

After having compared chromakey’s definition, of seeing it in action in different contexts and they are similar; I would define chromakey as the technique of using a monotonous color (specifically green) to change, insert or alter the color to create a desired image or fade the color for digital design purposes for any audience that is going to watch it through the screen. This technique will be very helpful for me when I begin to specialize in animation or film productions in special effects; because the movies contain this process in almost all the scenes, but the audience cannot see this magic illusion.

References

[1]        “Chromakey” in Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, June 2011. Available: https://www.oed.com
[2]        “Green-screen” in Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, June 2011. Available: https://www.oed.com
[3]        “Chroma-key ” in The Canadian Oxford Dictionary, 2 ed. Edited by Barber, Katherine Oxford University Press, 2004. Available: https://www.oxfordreference.com
[4]        William, Eadie, Broadcast Journalism.” 21st Century Communication: A Reference Handbook, vol. 2, SAGE Publications, 21st Century Reference Series. 2009. pp. 635-642. Available: Gale eBooks
[5]      D, Leimbach, ” For Children,” The New York Times, Aug. 4, 1995. Available: https://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/04/arts/for-children.html?searchResultPosition=1 [6]        Luci, “How to set-up a green screen for streaming [Twitch & YouTube gaming].” Streamscheme, Available: https://www.streamscheme.com/how-to-set-up-a-green-screen-for-streaming-on-twitch

To: Prof. Jason Ellis
From: Roshel Babayev
Date: 10/26/2021
Subject: Expanded Definition of Protection

Introduction

I’m writing to elaborate on the definition of the word protection. Protection is a very valuable thing in today’s day and we must understand where it came from and how it works. There will also be valuable examples of how it is used via real world examples and the main purpose of protection. Following will be discussed the context in which it is most commonly used in the use case of computer security.

Definition

The generic definition of the word protection is to stop something but that’s not how it’s classified everywhere. Merriam webster defines this word as “to cover or shield from exposure, injury, damage, or destruction : GUARD” [1] while others define it as “the action of protecting”. This word has been around since the beginning of time but in many different forms either being utilized as a means to define protection for a person or today where we use it as a means to describe computer security. The article provides some additional insight on the word “Historically, software protection first appeared as (often feeble) attempts at adding license-checking code to computer games, followed by algorithms for white-box cryptography used for digital-media piracy protection” [3]. Protection has shifted from initially being used in real world situations to digital scenarios as the world gradually moves into the digital age. While protection does have the same meaning behind its definition, the use case in which the definition is applied does in fact change.

Context

Security has always been an issue when it comes to software. Most software developers may not even know this but as they proceed in their development process, some vulnerabilities may be in place. A good way to hide these issues is to prevent others from seeing how the code works and functions as a whole. As long as the software is utilized in its intentional manner, there are no real issues to worry about. But there are always people who seek to break and destroy for their own reasons and for these purposes, protection for software was created. Not only doe protection prevents piracy of software, it also attempts to prevent others from reversing it and discovering vulnerabilities within it. Malicious users often times use these methods as a means to gain access to other people’s systems via a vulnerability they never even knew about.
There are many ways to protect a piece of software. There are means through tamper-proof the software which allows software to verify its own integrity to prevent any sort of unauthorized modification from occurring which can lead to malicious purposes for either reversing of said software or preventing hijacked software from executing. Watermarking is also a possibility to keep your software out of the wrong hands so that if it ever does get publicly exposed, you’ll know where the origin came from and you can handle the problem and prevent it from happening again. There are many methods that you can use to ensure software security via protection but protection has multiple uses either for anti-piracy means or for preventing reversing for malicious purposes. Using software protection may be expensive at times but more than often the cost of security provided by such services is just worth it.
Some people decide to store valuable information within their software such as including a login to their remote server to perform some action on user login or other events. This login is shipped to everyone who obtains access to this software and nothing is really stopping them from just obtaining this login especially when more than often, it’s stored in plain text. Using software protection ensures that even if someone has your software, it protects valuable pieces of information such as this. In practical usage this is obviously a terrible idea to ship software with such valuable information but things like this do happen quite often in the real development world.

Working Definition

A software developer should always be aware of any and all issues that may arise from their code. As a secondary means to prevent any sort of malicious execution, applying protection to your code will ensure an additional level of security as the malicious user will first need to get passed that layer of protection before having the chance at manipulating your code. Protection comes in many forms and there are many ways to protect but in the end, it’s a never ending war.

References

[1] https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/protection
[2] https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/protection
[3] Falcarin, Paolo et al. “Software Protection.” IEEE software 28.2 (2011): 24–27.

TO: Prof. Ellis
FROM: DeAndre Badresingh
DATE: 10/27/2021
SUBJECT: Expanded Definition of Malware

Introduction

The purpose of this document is to discuss the expanded definition of my term malware. The term that I will be defining is malware in which I will discuss the previous definition and current usage of this term. In addition, I will be giving examples of how malware was used before and after updated definitions. After discussing this, I plan to divide the history of the word into different sections while also providing different ways this term was used. For example, in chronological order starting from the earliest date, I will quote how the word was defined and how the word was implemented when being discussed. Finally, towards the end I will discuss the definition but in my own way to describe it to individuals who are not so familiar with the use of this word. 

Definitions

            The history of malware goes back to as far back as the early 1970s. As the years progressed, this term has changed to mean different things yet still have the same concept. In an article that discusses the previous history of malware, there were several definitions that were used to identify this word. One of which included, “An experiment designed to test how a program might move between computers.” [1] Back then, as shown in this quote, malware was once used as an experiment to see how different programs on a device interact with each other. However, moving on to the mid-1970s, the definition for the word had been more inclusive to what it really is. It was then described as “A self-replicating program that made multiple copies of itself on a computer until it bogs down the system to such an extent that system performance is reduced and eventually crashes.” [1] These definitions are both similar to one another in the sense that they both describe how malware is incorporated inside a system. However, the way in which it was implemented was vastly different from one another. 

Context

            While there have been many versions of malware, the way how it is constructed varies. For example, the earliest definition of malware described it as an “experiment” while a more recent definition defines it as “Programs written with the intent of being disruptive or damaging to (the user of) a computer or other electronic device; viruses, worms, spyware, etc., collectively.” [3] The way how they would be used in sentences would be based on their definitions. Early definition sentences describe it as, “Malware authors disguised one of the earliest Trojans as a popular shareware program called “PC-Writer.” Once on a system, it would erase all of a user’s files.” Another most recent way malware would be used in sentences would involve, “Malware can assume many forms, from standard computer viruses to spyware and adware. Individuals may even choose to install malicious software because the malware masquerades as a beneficial program or application. Malware can cause catastrophic damage to a computer’s software, The damage malware can do to privacy may not be as obvious but it is equally, if not more, detrimental.” [2] The way how these sentences would relate to each other is that they all show how malware interacts and causes damage to its host. As explained in the quote, malware is extremely dangerous and sometimes presents itself as unpredictable.

Working Definition

            Based on the definitions from as early as the 1970s and from more recent definitions, they are all similar in the sense of how the word is actually used. That being said, a working definition for malware would be a software, file, or other content on a system that has the potential to cause substantial damage. Some instances of this includes viruses, phishing, ransomware, denial-of-service, spyware, man-in-the-middle, zero-day, attack replication vectors, and much more. All of these forms of disruption all fall under the branch of malware which makes defining this term very vague. As described by this article, “Today, malware is no longer confined to individuals acting alone on the Internet, nor is it as easy to detect, even for the most perceptive computer users.” [2] Hence, we have seen the progression of malware origin from being just an experiment, to being more specified to various types like trojans, to worm infections that can be undetected. Nonetheless, the origins of malware and how it is described now is very similar to each other. In conclusion, you must always remember that malware is made by humans and we cannot satisfy everyone. So, you can always defend yourself against malware attacks.   

References: 

[1] P. by J. Love and J. Love, “A brief history of malware-its evolution and impact,” Lastline, 19-Sep-2019. [Online]. Available: https://www.lastline.com/blog/history-of-malware-its-evolution-and-impact/.

[2] Baker, A. (2015) ‘Malware’ in Anglim, C.T., ed., Privacy Rights in the Digital Age, Amenia, NY: Grey House Publishing, 339-342, Available: https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX6403900139/GVRL?u=cuny_nytc&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=ccefd7de

[3] “Malware, in Oxford English Dictionary, 3^rd ed, Oxford University Press, Dec. 2006, def.1 Available: https://www.oed.com

TO:                         Prof. Ellis
FROM:                  Shuaixiang Feng
DATE:                    10/25/2021
SUBJECT:              Expanded Definition Term: Digital, Final Draft

Introduction

The purpose of the Word Expanded Definition Term memo is to focus a term on its etymology and historical development, looking for the inconsistent meaning and how it uses in a different area. Digital is the word I have chosen for the Word Expanded Definition Term project. This paper will discuss digital in two different working areas and how this term defines the meaning of those two kinds of audiences—also contrasting the definition in different timelines to investigate how its context changes.

Definitions

Digital can define as “Chiefly humorous. Any of the fingers (including the thumb) of the hand.” [1] This etymology was around the 1300s. In human history, people like to use their fingers as a calculator. People are familiar with defining digital as their fingers of the hand. Another definition has its distinct vision. Digital is “composed of data in the form of especially binary digits.” [2] Digital has become a concept that is using in the computing area. Currently, the development technology can observe digits, but in the past, people could only use their fingers to represent the whole number between one to nine. While people used their fingers to count one to nine, that was the origin of Math and Algorithm. Every number we knew started from understood the finger of our hands. From first-person definite and use this term as meaning to 2021, the definition of digital is increasing and updating. However, the digital, composed of data and binary digits, is still a Math and Algorithm.

Context

Following Fraser’s magazine for town and country, “Hundreds of thousands vanish at the touch of royal digitals,” [3] by James Fraser. The word digital is used as a noun in this sentence. “At the touch of royal digitals’, where people used to touch something? So digital represent a hand from Britain, which means the power of Britain eliminated thousands of people in Fraser. In so many countries, military power is loyal to the king or noble for protecting their life and property. So, they control their military power like controlling their hand because no media and others can affect the military.

Another author states his point of view on the word digital. “In today’s digital age, technology has a firm grasp on practically every aspect of human life; consequently, there is growing cross-sector demand to help individuals build digital competencies such as digital literacy, digital skills, and digital readiness.” [4] Over here, digital uses as an adjective and means any composed of the data item. The author states that the word digital means an electronic product composed of data, and binary digits are essential today. Electronic products are increasing numerous amounts in many industries. No digital industry is decreasing, which makes authors wondering is it require to help the employee build digital literacy, digital skills, and digital readiness. As we know, a considerable number of elders are working in many industries. They are still using the old cell phone, which can only take a call and send mail. Suppose a company is not wanting to quit those experienced employees. Those companies require to update or rebuild the digital knowledge of those elders.

Working Definition

Currently, in CST, digital is always used as an adjective and surrounds every people work in CST. Every product has a screen and OS that can call as digital items such as smartphones or laptops because every byte in the program and OS are all meaning data. So, all electronic products can definite as digital. Following the technology development, Artificial Intelligence may join in with some industries; computer science technology is the possible area that Artificial Intelligence joined. Artificial Intelligence looks much different from other electronic products, and it has intelligence. However, Artificial Intelligence is still defined as digital because AI is a program made by data. That is why Artificial Intelligence can call as a digital item. As programmer uses computer language to establish and create more new technology, the word is becoming more digital.

Reference

[1] “digital, n. and adj.” OED Online, Oxford University Press, September 2021, www.oed.com/view/Entry/52611. Accessed 4 October 2021.

[2] “Digital.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/digital. Accessed 4 Oct. 2021.

[3] James Fraser,” Fraser’s magazine for town and country.” Fraser’s Mag. 22 397, 1830

[4] “IEEE Standard for Digital Intelligence (DQ)–Framework for Digital Literacy, Skills, and Readiness,” in IEEE Std 3527.1-2020 , vol., no., pp.1-47, 15 Jan. 2021, doi: 10.1109/IEEESTD.2021.9321783.