Category: Student Projects

New York City Technical College Department of Business

TO: Prof. Ellis

FROM: [ Shemei John]

DATE: 9/29/2021

SUBJECT: Expanded Definition Term: [Transhumanism]

            [Introduction]

The intent of this memo is to introduce and inform technological Terminology we may or may not be fully familiar with. Terms such as “Networks”, “the internet of things”, “information technology”, “information sciences”, “data”, “transhumanism”, “hive-mind concept” and “Artificial Intelligence”. After careful consideration, I decided to research the term “Transhumanism”. Although, according to its popularity, the term isn’t mentioned a lot in today’s topics regarding technology, I do find it to be fascinating since it deals with the ideology that Mankind will transcend our current limitations through the use of technology. There are several sources I am considering for this topic to convey the definitions. So, I am going to include the definition of the word and its origins, throughout its history, from the Oxford etymology, and also from an excerpt taken from the books, “New bottles for new wine”, on Transhumanism, which discusses the ideology behind the term and its definition today.

[Definitions]

The Oxford English dictionary’s definition of transhumanism (n), is a deviation of the English word, transhuman, with the prefix “trans” meaning beyond or across the farther side of. The term was first used by Julian Huxley in his book “New bottles for new wine (1957)” in which he said, “The human species can..transcend itself..in its entirety, as humanity. We need a name for this belief. Perhaps transhumanism will serve: man remaining man, but transcending himself, by realizing new possibilities of and for his human nature.” [1] What Huxley is saying is, the belief in the will to surpass our current nature as humans is transhumanism. The term has surfaced occasionally in its etymology, being used again by Tom Bell, in his writings from “Extropy”, in which he says that the alternative to religion would be transhumanism. The term also has a definition more relevant the modernity of time.

[Context]

Over the course of its history from when it was first coined to current times, the word transhumanism has variated into slight nuances. Huxley’s definition of transhumanism is the belief that humankind will transcend our nature, but he was speaking specifically about the beliefs. He believed that either synchronously, or not, humans will consciously give rise to this belief in order to evolve. Today the word has slightly a different definition which includes some addition to it. [2] The definition today is familiarly used in science fiction. So, the current definition of the 21^st century would be that, transhumanism is the belief that one day humankind with transcend our current limitations, ultimately achieving immortality, by use of science and technology.

I checked in the Oxford dictionary of science-fiction for some comparison. The word transhuman references with two other words, “cyborg” and “posthuman”. The definition of a transhuman according to the science fiction definition, [3]“someone whose body or mind has been transformed (e.g. by cyborgization or genetic engineering) so greatly that they are no longer considered human, especially one who now possesses greater abilities than normal humans.”

The term is more relevant today since we marvel at our current level of technology. This definition is what most of us are familiar with. We put a lot of our faith in technology. It has embedded its way into our lives. As I stated earlier, trans, the prefix, means beyond or across the farther side of, however, the suffix ‘ism’, usually accompany a verb, and means or implied an action that was or is to be performed, or a state of being, (Like Buddhism or Plagiarism). This definition is on par with current events.

Professor M. Battle-Fisher, in his article, “Transhuman, posthuman and complex humanness in the 21^st century”, defines Transhumanism as the philosophy that you are already posthuman once you remove the current limitations of the current human being, “…the present state of our bodies.” Any kind of capacity that can enhance our abilities beyond our current state of flesh is transhumanism. He also states in the article that the only way to do that on the horizon is through the use of technology.

[1] Julian Huxley, New Bottles for New wine (page 17), Harper and Brothers publishing, 1957

[2] C. Christopher Hook, Transhumanism and Posthumanism, Encyclopedia of Bioethics(Vol. 5. 3rd ed.) Page 2517, Gale Publishing, 2004

[3][Oxford reference] Jeff Prucher, The Oxford Dictionary of Science Fiction, (Version 2007),

Oxford University Press, published 2006

[4] M. Battle-Fisher, Transhuman, posthuman and complex humanness in the 21st century, Science Direct, library.citytech.cuny.edu, 25 March 2019

[5]”Transhumanism,” in Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press, Oct 6, def. 1. [Online]. Available: https://www.oed.com

TO: Prof. Ellis
FROM: Sebastian Vela
DATE: 10/28/2021
SUBJECT: Expanded Definition Term: Branching

Introduction

The purpose of this document is to discuss the expanded definition of the term branching. I chose the terms “branch” and “branching” because they are used very commonly in programming. Any code that a programmer writes will include some form of branching to another set of instructions, rather than go through all of the instructions in the program one by one. The branches are conditional: If a user performs an action (let’s call this Action A), the program will jump (or branch) to the action corresponding to Action A. If the user performs a different action (Action B), the program will jump to the branch corresponding to Action B, and so on.

Definitions

Our current version of the word “branch” helms its origins from the Latin word “branca”, or paw, referring to parts of the anatomy that divide from the larger animal, such as the claws of a tiger. This term was later borrowed by the Anglo-French as “branche”, but now more often used to refer to the limbs of a tree. Circa 1250-1300, the word was adopted by the Middle English language as “branche”, “braunche”, and “bronche”, now referring to any parts of something that divides like the branches of a tree. Branching is a very simple concept and can be described to even a child. The University of Utah states that branching is “when an Algorithm makes a choice to do one of two (or more things) this is called branching. The most common programming “statement” used to branch is the IF statement.” [1] Techopedia.com gives a more descriptive and in-depth definition as to what branching is “A branch in a computer program is an instruction that tells a computer to begin executing different instructions rather than simply executing the instructions in order. In high-level languages, these are typically referred to as flow control procedures and are built into the language. In assembly programming, branch instructions are built into a CPU.” [2] Techopedia also states the different statements that are used in order to implement a branch such as IF statements, for loops, while loops and switch statements.

Context

Branching can be used differently depending on the industry for example in business branching is the act of creating a smaller office that is separate from a company’s headquarters. Investopedia description of how a branch office works states “Branch offices are useful in that they allow many of the client-specific administrative considerations to be conducted closest to clients. For example, Starbucks has branch offices to better serve its retail stores’ district managers in a more cost-effective manner. They can also cater to and be more informed about the needs of specific locations, rolling out location-specific items or adjusting staff.” [3] The uses of the term “branch” in programming and its use in business are very different. The meaning is more commonly associated with branches in business, so it would cause confusion for people who are not programmers to hear it used in a different context. Someone who is curious about programming would encounter the term “branch” and “branching” very often, as programs almost always have methods and condition-based actions that are described in the code and related documentation.

Working definition

Based on the definitions of branching and its context related to working in CST I would best summarize a branch as an instruction based on a decision, or a reaction based on a condition where the conditions are a series of tests that a program goes through. Each test looks for some kind of indication, whether it is a keyword, phrase, number, or boolean statement. The reaction, or branch, is the instruction that the program follows when the appropriate conditions are met. If the appropriate conditions are not met, the program goes into a different branch, and follows a different set of instructions until the conditions are finally met.

References

[1]       H. J. de S. Germain, “Branching,” Programming – Branching. [Online]. Available: https://www.cs.utah.edu/~germain/PPS/Topics/branching.html

[2]       Techopedia, “What is a branch? – definition from Techopedia,” Techopedia.com, 21-Sep-2016. [Online]. Available: https://www.techopedia.com/definition/18058/branch.

[3]       W. Kenton, “How branch offices work,” Investopedia, 21-Sep-2021. [Online]. Available: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/branch-office.asp.

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TO:           Prof.  Ellis

FROM:     Norbert Derylo

DATE:     Oct 27, 2021

SUBJECT:     Expanded Definition of Network

Introduction

    In this paper I will be writing about the definition of the word “network.” I will be writing about how network was originally used and will compare it to how it is used in modern day. I will also write about how network is used in different contexts in modern day society. I will finally write about how network is used in terms of computers and data.

Definitions

    Network was used in the Bible, one of the oldest pieces of christian literature. The word’s definition in that book was “Work (esp. manufactured work) in which threads, wires, etc., are crossed or interlaced in the fashion of a net; frequently applied to light fabric made of threads intersecting in this way” [1]. This definition refers to more physical objects which is very different compared to what network is defined as modernly.  One definition from modern times is  “a network is nothing more than a set of discrete elements (the vertices), and a set of connections (the edges) that link the elements, typically in a pairwise fashion” [2]. The modern definition of network is more about grouping objects together based on how they interact with each other. The modern definition is more broad and in a way agrees with the old definition. The older definition of network comes from a time in which people would be more focused on trying to survive. Nets are a tool that have a very distinct pattern and such anything with that pattern could be described as a network. Compared to modern day we do not really use nets anymore unless it is a part of your profession. Network has lost its connotation of being a net and now just refers to the pattern. As such using the modern definition of network you can describe a net as a network of threads. 

Context

    Network is a word that requires context to understand what it means. A network describes how a group of objects interact, and therefore you need to know what those objects are. For example the following quote talks about networks in a corporate environment: “The knowledge network of a firm is a structural representation of its cumulative stock of rules, routines, practices, or documents and as such is the result of collective efforts of past and present employees” [3].  In this context a network is about the knowledge a business has collected. If you take out the word knowledge you can see how all of those objects work together and can be considered a network. A network can also be viewed as a set of objects. This following quote is from a survey about wireless sensor networks: “Energy conservation in a WSN (wireless sensor network) maximizes network lifetime and is addressed through efficient reliable wireless communication, intelligent sensor placement to achieve adequate coverage, security and efficient storage management, and through data aggregation and data compression” [4]. In this case the network is looked at as one single object instead of a set of objects that are connected. This is because in a wireless sensor network the entire network defines what it is. If you take any part of it out it loses its status as a network and instead becomes a collection of equipment. Network is very versatile in its uses and can be used to describe many things, however its definition is very dependent on its context.

Working Definition

    In my major of computer information systems there are two major definitions. The most well known use of the word network is through computer networks. This refers to how computers connect to each other. One well known computer network is the internet. Computer networks are bluntly computers that can communicate with each other to transfer data. The other definition for network in my major is data networks. These networks are often limited in access and tend to hold more sensitive data. The difference between these two types of networks is how people interact on them. On computer networks computers and their users interact with each other. On data networks users tend to interact with a set of information and very minimally with other users. In both cases the network is defined by what you are trying to connect with as a user.

References

[1]     “Network,” in Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press, Mar. 2012, def. 1. [Online]. Available: https://www-oed-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/Entry/126342?rskey=qXENxr&result=1

[2]    Newman, M. et al. (2006) The structure and dynamics of networks. [Online]. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Available: ProQuest Ebook Central

[3]    Brennecke, J. & Rank, O. (2017) The firm’s knowledge network and the transfer of advice among corporate inventors—A multilevel network study. Research policy. [Online] 46 (4), 768–783. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2017.02.002.

[4]    Jennifer Yick, Biswanath Mukherjee, Dipak Ghosal, Wireless sensor network survey, Computer Networks, Volume 52, Issue 12, 2008, Pages 2292-2330, ISSN 1389-1286, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2008.04.002.