Category: Student Projects

TO: Prof. Jason Ellis
FROM: Zeela Rafija
DATE: 26 Mar. 2021
SUBJECT: Expanded Definition of Energy

Introduction

I have decided to discuss on energy. In today’s modern world, energy has become unavoidable part of our lives. Without it, we go for a single day. In the 21^st century, almost everything that surrounded us required energy to perform tasks. When we talk about the uses of energy, the most basic energy uses are watching television, washing clothes, lighting the house, taking a shower, the use of a computer, running appliances and cooking. There are also commercial uses of energy and in transportation. There are several forms of energy such as heat, kinetic, light, potential energy, and electrical energy.

Definitions

To understand the definition of Energy, it requires us to look back at the origin of the word. As many other words, the definition for the word energy has multiple origins, partly a borrowing from Latin and Greek. Comparing it with other parts of the world, Middle French used to call it energie (énergie) which means efficacy and force of expression, just as Spanish, the word energy is used as energía. The first use of the word was in 1545 by E. Walshe Office & Duty Fighting for Country. As a general concept, it defines power, strength, force; the ability or capacity to produce an obsolete effect (oed.com). Since the origin of the word has been used in many different platforms to specify multiple uses of energy.  Even though the definition of energy stays the same in all platforms, the use of the word changes.

For example, the first use of the word energy in physics was by Thomas Young in 1800. Thomas Young later established the wave nature of light through interference experiments. Also, between 1842 and 1847, scientists like Julius Robert von Mayer, James Prescott Joule, and Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz discovered the basic laws of conservation of energy, but they never used the word energy. However, the word did not gain popularity until Albert Einstein established the general equivalence of energy and mass with his theory of relativity (home.uni-leipzig.de). Although most people use the word energy in their daily lives, it may have a different meaning in different situations. The word is also used in multiple religions which led to me learning more about the word and how it is defined in different religious point of views.

Context

According to Marcia Montenegro in Christianity “Energy in these contexts refers to an unquantifiable unknown energy that is connected to spiritual beliefs about God and/or creation” (Montenegro, Para 2). From her perspective, she believes the use of the word energy has nothing to do with frequencies that have a physical and scientific basis, like electricity or radio waves. To the authors point of view, it seems to be that the word energy falsely claims by scientific foundation, but the word is spiritually based. As she defines “all forms of chi therapies and are based on spiritual beliefs in the invisible (and undocumented) energy called chi, also spelled qi or ki” (christiananswersforthenewage.org). If we look at another religion such as Hinduism, the word energy is defined as “Sakti” which means “A divine cosmic energy that represents feminine energy and the dynamic forces that move through the universe” (The Editors at Chopra.com). From a Hinduism perspective, it seems to be that Shakti is a universal energy force which can be called upon when in need to fight off one’s own personal demons or when seeking protection. People may call upon Durga to provide people with Energy (Sakti) to bring back balance in their life (chopra.com). Whether the energy is defined as spiritual beliefs or seeking protection against demons, it all comes back to the definition of the power to work.

However, the term energy has been lasting among us for decades either to describe how energy is used to create electricity or to describe how our body functions. For instance, scientists are using the ocean to create renewable energy which is carbon free and has a significant impact on energy supplies. According to the article Marine Energy by David Kerr “Power can be extracted from the tides by using barrage (or dam) to impound water at high tide and then, as the tides ebbs and when sufficient head difference exists, to let the water out through a turbine to generate electricity” (Kerr, 2007, p. 972). In addition, in order for humans to move or to do work, we need to have energy. Mitochondria is an organelle which has the function to convert the food we eat into energy for our body to function. As it describes in the article 15 Energy for Lifeby Andrew Morris“Mitochondria make this energy available for use in the cell. They do this by transferring the energy through a series of chemical reaction of specialized molecules, which then carry the energy to where it’s needed” (Morris, 2016, p. 153). As it is described, the word energy has different uses in different platforms, but the definition is the same.

Working Definition

Based on the definitions that I have quoted and discussed above, and the contextual uses of the term which has been defined differently in different fields- energy has been evolving within us for decades as a central power.

Regardless of how it is defined, the meaning of the term remains the same.In the process of defining energy, it has been clear that a word may be used in various written contexts. Along in the future, the use of the word energy might take a different turn, but the definition of the word will stay the same.

References 

Energy, n. Energy. Oxford English Dictionary.

www.oed.com/view/Entry/62088?redirectedFrom=Energy#eid.

Snurr. R., and D. Freude. The History of the Word Energy. Historical Development of the Word “Energy” Energy Fundamentals. https://home.uni-leipzig.de/energy/energy-fundamentals/01.htm

Montenegro, Marcia. The Religion of Life Force Energy. The Religion of Life Force Energy.http://www.christiananswersforthenewage.org/Articles_Religion%20of%20Life%20Force%20Energy.html

Chopra.com. (2018, Dec28). “Shakti: A Universal Force.” The Chopra Center. http://www.chopra.com/article/shakti-universal-force.

Morris. A. (2016). Why Icebergs Float: Exploring Science in Everyday Life, p.153. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/j.ctt1gxxpgr?refreqid=search -gateway:2d4db6d52cac12d577738c01565954fb.
Kerr, D. (2007). “Marine Energy” Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 36(1853), 971–992. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/25190483?refreqid=search-gateway: aa0203406cf8ffb6d1896b395d54ddf6.

TO: Prof. Jason Ellis
FROM: MD Jahirul Hasan
DATE: 03/26/2021
SUBJECT: Expanded Definition of Cloud Computing

Introduction

The purpose of this document is to discuss the history of a term for those who are studying computer system technology. The term that I am defining is “Cloud Computing”. While the majority of the people are running after the short-term technological advancement and networking policy, I want to take a different approach to redefine the concept of cloud computing where the user’s privacy and security concerns play a vital role in the development of a sustainable cloud computing. In this document, I am going to discuss the definitions of the term and discuss the contextual use of the term. At the end of this document, I am going to provide a working definition of the term that is relevant to the people who are studying computer system technology.

Definition

The Oxford English Dictionary defines cloud computing as “the use of networked facilities for the storage and processing of data rather than a user’s local computer, access to data or services typically being via the internet.” Cloud computing is the distribution of on-demand computing resources over the internet and on a pay as you go basis, ranging from software to storage and processing power. Cloud computing is the on-demand availability of computer system resources, especially data storage (cloud storage) and computing power, without direct active control by the user. In other words, cloud computing is the use of network facilities for the storage and processing of data rather than a user’s local computer, access to data or services. Cloud computing is on-demand access, via the internet, to computing resources applications, servers, data storage, development tools, networking capabilities, and more hosted at a remote data center managed by a cloud services provider (or CSP). The CSP makes these resources available for a monthly subscription fee or bills them according to usage. The term “cloud computing” also refers to the infrastructure that enables cloud computing to function. This includes virtualized IT infrastructure, which consists of servers, operating system software, networking, and other infrastructure that has been abstracted using special software and can be pooled and divided across physical hardware boundaries.

Context

According to this journal article “Secure Integration of IOT and Cloud Computing”, “Cloud infrastructure involves the hardware and software components required for proper implementation of a cloud computing model. Cloud computing can also be thought of as utility computing, or on-demand computing” (Stergiou et al., 2018, p. 964). The authors tries to make it clear to the people that Companies can rent access to anything from applications to storage from a cloud service provider rather than owning their own computer resources or data centers. One advantage of cloud computing is that companies can escape the upfront costs and complexities of owning and managing their own IT infrastructure by paying only for what they need, when they use it. Mobile Cloud Computing is a relatively modern technology that refers to an infrastructure that stores and processes data outside of the mobile device. The Internet of Things is a relatively new technology. Another article “cloud computing acceptance among public sector employees” stated that “However, in today’s rapidly changing technology, with the transition to the industrial revolution 4.0 (IR 4.0) environment, it has opened a new dimension to the world computing. The emergence of cloud computing technology as a new platform for computing has opened the eyes of technology industry players to further benefit from this innovation. Many studies have proven that this technology provides many benefits to the industry and users such as its ability to reduce operating costs, improve collaboration, more secure security levels and more mobile accessibility” (Amron et al., 2021, p.124). The idea of business agility is often stated by cloud proponents as a major advantage. Companies that use cloud platforms can move faster on projects and try out ideas without having to go through lengthy procurement processes or incur large upfront costs because they only pay for the tools they use. Turning the eyes into the mobile clouding the authors states that, “Mobile Cloud Computing is a new technology which refers to an infrastructure where both data storage and data processing operate outside of the mobile device” (Stergiou et al., 2018, p. 964). The ability to spin up new services without the time and effort associated with traditional IT procurement should mean that is easier to get going with new applications faster. The Internet of Things (IoT) is a relatively new telecommunications technology that is quickly gaining popularity. The authors also stated that, “Cloud computing also cuts costs related to downtime. Since downtime rarely happens in cloud computing, companies don’t have to spend time and money to fix any issues that may be related to downtime” (Stergiou et al., 2018, p. 964).

Working Definition

Based on the definition and quotes that I discussed about the term cloud computing it is related to the major computer system technology. From my understanding, cloud computing is the delivery of various services, such as data storage, servers, database, networking and software. It also allows us to save or work on files remotely to databases and also let us recover the files whenever we need. Cloud computing is very convenient because we don’t need to worry about computer crashes anymore. It stores and can be accessed the files over the internet.

References

Oxford University Press. (n.d.). Cloud Computing. In Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved March 1, 2021, from https://www-oed-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/Entry/34689?redirectedFrom=cloud+computing#eid189443962

Amron, M. T., Ibrahim, R., &Bakar, N. A. (2021). Cloud Computing Acceptance Among Public Sector Employees. Telkomnika, 19(1), 124-133. https://doi.org10.12928/TELKOMNIKA.v19i1.17883

Stergiou, C., Psannis, K., Kim, B., & Gupta, B. (2018). Secure integration of IoT and Cloud Computing. Future Generation Computer Systems, 78, 964–975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.future.2016.11.031

TO: Prof. Jason Ellis
FROM: Benson Huang
DATE: March 26, 2021
SUBJECT: Expanded Definition of Software

Introduction

The word chosen for this expanded definition is software. To make the expanded definition for this a few definitions from dictionaries and the uses of the word in context will be observed. After looking through these while comparing and contrasting them an expanded definition will be made off of them.

Definitions

“Programs designed to enable a computer to perform a particular task or series of tasks” (Oxford University Press, 2000). In this definition, software is defined as a program tailored to perform tasks. Everything you do on a computer is software from the operating system to notepad. Software works with hardware to allow users to do what they want.

“Coded instructions in the form of programs that perform certain tasks using a computer’s hardware. Software includes a computer’s operating system and all its applications (colloquially, apps). These are written in source code (a programming language such as Java or C++) and are then converted by a compiler program into binary code.” (Oxford University Press, 2020). This definition is essentially the same as the last just in more detail. It also includes how it is written and explains how it is converted to binary which is how a computer reads the typed code.

“A person or company that produces software. The term is particularly used to describe approved producers of commercial applications software extending the use of existing software (e.g., ‘a Windows developer’)” (Oxford University Press, 2008). This definition is defining not software but software developer. This makes it different from the other two as a software developer is someone that makes the software. As someone who makes the program, they are the ones who make sure that the software they make sure it does what it is supposed to and keeps it free of bugs or unintended features.

Context

“The software system reliability requirement deals with features that can be translated as events occurring overtime, such as the average time between failures (e.g., no more than once in 500 hours), average time for recovery after system failure (e.g., no more than 15minutes), or average down time per month (e.g., no more than 30 minutes per month)” (Galin, 2018, p.274). In this context, we learn that software should be reliable. Even if we take out the word software it is still understandable. A reliable system is a system you would want. The word software is also used with another noun to describe what it is.

“FaSTR DNA from STRmix is an expert forensic software that rapidly analyzes DNA profiles and assigns a Number of Contributors (NoC) estimate” (DNA software, 2020). In this quote, we can conclude that FaSTR DNA is a forensic program that analyzes DNA. Compared to the last quote this we know that the software in this quote is more focused on doing a certain task, analyzing DNA instead of a system that would likely have more functions and users. Also, software is being used with forensic to give software a more scientific meaning.

The word software is also used in a tweet by VALORANT “We’re aware that a recent update is clashing with some antivirus software and keeping you out of the game. A fix is on the way” (Valorant, 2021). Valorant is a tactical first-person shooter, and they are very serious with their anticheat. In this tweet they speak of an antivirus software which is a program that keeps malware away from your device. Here they had issues where an update to their game had conflicts with some antivirus programs that did not allow players to play.

Working Definition

After all these definitions and uses in context we can conclude that the word software can be used in many different industries. As a Computer Systems major, I can define software as a program that can be tailored by a developer to perform either a specific task or multiple tasks. Everything that runs on the computer is software.

References

Oxford University Press. (2000). software. In Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved February 23, 2021, from https://www-oed-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/Entry/183938?redirectedFrom=software
Oxford University Press. (2020). software. A Dictionary of Media and Communication (3 ed.). Retrieved March 14, 2021, from https://www-oxfordreference-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/10.1093/acref/9780198841838.001.0001/acref-9780198841838-e-2567
Oxford University Press. (2008). software. A Dictionary of Computing (6 ed.). Retrieved March 14, 2021, from https://www-oxfordreference-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/10.1093/acref/9780199234004.001.0001/acref-9780199234004-e-6018
Galin, D. (2018). Software Quality: Concepts and Practice (1st ed.). Wiley. Retrieved March 15, 2021, from https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119134527
DNA software. (2020, December). Law Enforcement Product News, 31(8), 20. Retrieved March 16, 2021 from https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A649185021/PPCJ?u=cuny_nytc&sid=PPCJ&xid=ce689a34
VALORANT, [@PlayVALORANT]. (2021, March 16). We’re aware that a recent update is clashing with some antivirus software and keeping you out of the game. A fix is on the way! https://twitter.com/PlayVALORANT/status/1372006567759937540

TO: Prof. Jason Ellis
FROM: Ralph Ayala
DATE: 26 Mar. 2021
SUBJECT: Expanded Definition of Software Development

Introduction

The purpose of this document is to discuss the word history behind a word of my choosing. The term I am defining is “software development”. To me software development is a process of creating or maintaining your software components. So, imagine you are a software developer, and you can not only create but you can also alter software under your control. I will be discussing quotes I have found related to my search, and I will be comparing each quote to discover differences or similarities found behind the meaning of the word software development. Therefore, I can compare those examples to today’s modern society and discover if there was a huge change.

Definitions

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, “Systems programming or software development experience is essential” (San Mateo, 1987). When I am programming, the best way to learn is through hands-on experiences. If you ask me this feels very modern to this day because it appears as the best way to learn. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, “App developers and software companies have a vested interest in getting you to use their products” (J. Hargrave, 2016). Becoming a software developer allows you to want customers to use your products. The better experience you have, the greater the effort you can put into your apps. In a way software development is about experience, but to me it is also a process of how you can use a certain programming language for a certain software. The difference I see between the two quotes is one concerning experience involving software development and not the other. Experience is important but it is also important to think about what you do with it. 

Context

According to this journal article, “Reuse-based software development emphasizes strategies, techniques, and principles that enable developers to create new systems effectively” (Selby, 2006, p. 495). This quote talks about a benefit you can use involving software development. You use software development for all kinds of stuff such as documenting, designing, and maintaining code. Using code that has already existed from other projects can save you time. The Oxford English Dictionary does show a quote regarding experience, and reusable software is efficient for future projects. An effective method to this day. Another article discusses, “The use of disparate software development tools on a project by multiple developers is usually essential when developing today’s complex software systems” (Grundy at el., 1998, p. 960).  The use of tools that a software developer can use is essential because it can make problems easier for others. Reusing code is a good technique to make your problems less difficult and can be an effective tool. For example, a software known as Java can perform such a tool. If a software developer has knowledge about how to properly use such tools, it can make great coding experience in the future. To this day I am sure tools have evolved over time for software developers to use. This quote from a book states, “Software development, in all its forms, is an exercise in learning” (Kelly, 2008, p. 1). As I discussed in the definitions paragraph, the best way for new people to learn software development is from hands-on experience. It will not only allow you to have better understanding with tools under your control, but perhaps with this knowledge you can pass it down to others as well. From the looks of these quotes there does appear to be some differences. The first quote involves the discussion of an actual tool, and the second talk about how essential such tools can be in the world of a software developer. As for the third quote it once again connects everything to experience. However, from the looks of these quotes there does not appear to be a change in the meaning of the word software development. To my eyes it seems little. Honestly, I do not see this change as a negative because software development can be made to create software for people. So, with what I know it has one purpose only and that is create and maintain a balance.

Working Definition

Based on all the quotes that I have read; the context shows the true meaning behind the word software development. The word software development does not have a lot of change in its own meaning, however at the end of the day here is what I believe software development is all about. Software development is about a process of creating software with months or years of experience to maintain the balance of a computer system with resources provided for you.

References

Grundy, J., Hosking, J., & Mugridge, W. B.(1998). Inconsistency Management for Multiple-View Software Development Environments. IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, 24(11), 960 – 981. https://doi.org/10.1109/32.730545

Hargrave, J. (n.d.). Software development. In Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved February 22nd, 2021, from Oxford English Dictionary (cuny.edu)

Kelly, A. (2008). Changing Software Development: Learning to Become Agile. John Wiley & Sons. 

Mateo, S. (n.d.). Software development. In Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved March 8th, 2021, from Oxford English Dictionary (cuny.edu)

Selby, R. W. (2005) Enabling reuse-based software development of large-scale systems. IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, 31(6), 495 – 510. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSE.2005.69

TO: Prof. Jason Ellis
FROM: Richard Rivera Urgiles
DATE: 03/24/2021
SUBJECT: Expanded Definition of Programmer

Introduction

This is an expanded definition that explores the word’s history of this term as a general education for undergraduates that are studying computer systems technology. The term I am defining is “Programmer”. The context that I use the term in is a person that writes code or programs/develops applications whether it be on computers or on mobile devices. Therefore, whenever my colleagues and I are discussing about ways to troubleshoot an application, I consider all of us programmers because the topic is about code or in relation to software languages. In the following document, I discuss several definitions of the term, I compare and contrast different contextual uses of the term, and finally I write my own working definition of the term based on these definitions and contextual examples.

Definitions

Within the Oxford English Dictionary, one of the definitions stated, “A person who writes computer programs or software” (Butterfield et al., 2016). Personally, I would say this is more of a modern definition because this is how people refer to others that code or develop applications.  

This next definition comes from the Oxford Reference and it states, “Person who builds and constructs the programme” (Gorse et al., 2020). In this definition, it is like calling someone a general constructor. In other words, it is saying that it is a person that creates a blueprint, does all the planning, and creates it whether it be a house, a theater play, structures in general, or an application. I never use this word like that because my mind has been wired in a way where the term “programmer” has one solid definition and that is specifically people that actually do coding to develop applications or even websites. In a way, it relates to the previous definition I discussed because you are still constructing something and that includes applications. The only difference is that this definition is more flexible or can be used in different contexts.

Context

In a New York Times newspaper, it states “He took a Remington Rand course in ‘programming’ for computers and is now chief programmer for the machine” (The New York Times, 1958, p. 39). The quote is direct in what it is trying to say, a person decided to take a class involving coding and he became successful to gain a rank as a chief for a computer they were working on. It is clear that when they used the term, they were referring to the first definition from Oxford English Dictionary because the topic or the context of it is about computers.

Here is another quote from a book called ‘Excel 2003 VBA programmer’s reference’, “If you are a new VBA programmer, then reading this chapter will help you optimize your code writing and debugging experience” (Paul, 2004, p. 63). In this context, it still relates to the first definition about coding because they explicitly state the word “code” in this quote. I believe the book is meant to teach the programmer, or coder about a programming language known as Visual Basics for Applications which in short is VBA because the quote does state if the reader has any experience with that specific language and if not, they will learn the basics reading the said chapter.

For the final quote, it also comes from the New York Times newspaper and it states, “Small fry is ‘Big Town Girl,’ which is filling that spot on the Globe’s bill… A typically average programmer, it gives the long arm of coincidence one of the stiffest workouts it has had this year and invites Claire Trevor… and Alan Baxter to animate one of the wildest scenarios ever devised by four desperate script writers” (Nugent, 1937, p. 23). From this quote/context, I am not entirely sure what the definition of the term programmer really means but from my educated guess, it could relate to the second definition. The quote could be saying that for a constructor, it is difficult to animate a play or a scene. In other words, it can be very difficult to construct an animation of some sort, nothing coding related.

Working Definition

Most of the context that I found for the term means it’s a person that programs or codes on a computer therefore that is the definition that I will still proceed to give to whoever it may be that asks, “What is a programmer?”. To be more specific, someone who develops web applications or applications in general through various programming languages.

References

Oxford. (n.d). Programmer. In Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved February 26, 2021, from programmer, n. : Oxford English Dictionary (cuny.edu)

Oxford University Press. (2020). Programmer. In Oxford Reference. Retrieved February 26, 2021, from Programmer – Oxford Reference (cuny.edu)

The New York Times. (1958, November 3). Blind Man Guides Data on Thruway. The New York Times. TimesMachine: November 3, 1958 – NYTimes.com

Paul, K. (2004). Excel 2003 VBA programmer’s reference. Indianapolis, IN.:Wiley Pub. Excel 2003 VBA programmer’s reference – New York City College of Technology (exlibrisgroup.com)

Nugent, F. S. (1937, December 13). The Screen. The New York Times. TimesMachine: December 13, 1937 – NYTimes.com

TO: Prof. Jason Ellis
FROM: Angela Hernandez
DATE: 3/26/2021
SUBJECT: Expanded Definition of Cookies

Introduction

This is an expanded definition that explores the word history of a term as a general introduction for undergraduates studying Computer Systems Technology.  The term I will be defining in this document is cookies, through the use of dictionaries, encyclopedias and academic journals to examine how it is defined and used in varied contexts.  In the following document, I discuss several definitions of the term, compare and contrast how the term is used in different contexts and give my own working definition of the term based on the different definitions and contextual uses of the term.

Definitions

The Oxford English Dictionary defines cookies as “a token or packet of data that is passed between computers or programs to allow access or to activate certain features; (in recent use spec.) a packet of data sent by an internet server to a browser, which is returned by the browser each time it subsequently accesses the same server, thereby identifying the user or monitoring his or her access to the server” (Oxford English Dictionary, n.d.).  In this definition, the Oxford English Dictionary is providing a more general and then a specific definition of the term cookies.

According to the Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology, “Cookies are simply tiny text files that a Web server sends to the browser and retrieves each time the user accesses the Web site” (Henderson, 2009, p. 116).  Unlike the Oxford English Dictionary, cookies are defined as ‘tiny text files’ that are sent by a Web server to a browser.  In contrast, this definition makes no mention of the fact that cookies are used to identify or monitor a user’s access to the server. 

In the article, ‘I Know What You Did Last Summer: New Persistent Tracking Mechanisms in the Wild’, the authors Stefano Belloro and Alexios Mylonas (2018) state “An HTTP cookie is a short piece of data (typically with size 4k) that a website sends to a client, either via HTTP response headers or by using client-side scripting.” In this definition, the term cookie is attached to the word HTTP which stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol.  “HTTP is the underlying protocol used by the World Wide Web and this protocol defines how messages are formatted and transmitted and what actions Web servers and browsers should take in response to various commands” (Beal, n.d.).  The cookie is sent from a website via HTTP response headers which is essentially information in the form of a text record that a Web server sends back to the user’s browser in response to receiving an HTTP request.  Unlike the last two definitions, here the term cookies or cookie is less general and more technical.  The authors define what a cookie is in terms of the World Wide Web and how it is sent via the Web.

Context

The New York Times article, ‘FROM THE DESK OF; Shopping on the Web: It’s Scary Out There’ by Alan Feigenbaum, describes how cookies have been used by web sites to lure users into making impulse buys from targeted ads and how to best avoid these practices.  Feigenbaum writes “Every time you click on an Internet link, there’s a good chance that the site is feeding a “cookie” – computer talk for a small file that logs the links you make from a Web site – to your hard drive.  Your computer can later read these cookies to see where you’ve been orbiting in cyberspace so that ads custom-tailored to you will be displayed when you next view the site” (Feigenbaum, 1997).  The author Hal Berghel likewise details the development of different cookies to track consumer behavior on the internet in his article ‘Toxic Cookies’.  Berghel writes “Cookies were created to overcome the statelessness of HTTP for Web commerce applications” (Berghel, 2013, p. 104).  He goes on to explain how the ‘recipe’ for cookies was invented for e-commerce applications by Lou Montulli in response to a need for client-side memory and later adopted for use in monitoring user information.  “The general idea was straightforward as part of an HTTP response to a browser, a server-side platform uses a “set cookie” header to leave small amount of digital guano (cookies) on the user’s hard disk.  The set cookie attributes are transaction-oriented data, such as user ID, name, date, server domain, pages visited, shopping cart contents and potentially, any personally identifying information (PII) the user provides during the session.  White this information is stored on the user’s side, it’s also creating a server-side memory” (Berghel, 2013, p. 104).

Working Definition

As it relates to Computer Systems Technology, Cookies are packets of data that are stored on a user’s hard disk by a web server and accessed by a web browser.  These packets contain information about the user and their use of web sites.  Oftentimes cookies are used to create targeted ads and cater to a user’s interests and preferences. 

References

Beal, V. (n.d.). Http meaning: What is hypertext transfer protocol? Retrieved March 08, 2021, from https://www.webopedia.com/definitions/http/

Belloro, S., & Mylonas, A. (2018). I know what you did last summer: New persistent tracking mechanisms in the wild. IEEE Access, 6, 52779-52792. http://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2869251.

Berghel, H. (2013). Toxic Cookies. Computer (Long Beach, Calif.), 46(9), 104–107. https://doi.org/10.1109/MC.2013.330

Feigenbaum, A. (1997). FROM THE DESK OF; Shopping On the Web: It’s Scary Out There. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/21/business/from-the-desk-of-shopping-on-the-web-its-scary-out-there.html?searchResultPosition=490

Henderson, H. (2009). Encyclopedia of computer science and technology (Rev. ed.). Facts On File. https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofco0000hend/page/116/mode/2up

Oxford English Dictionary. (n.d.) Cookies. In Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved February 22, 2021, from https://www-oed-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/Entry/40961?rskey=aWP9CU&result=1&isAdvanced=false#eid

Last week, I sent around the “Reply All” starter email for each team’s peer review on the second major project in our class: the Expanded Definition Essay project.

Since peer review didn’t begin until Friday, Mar. 12, you have until Friday, Mar. 19 to complete peer review on your Expanded Definition Project.

This gives you until Friday, Mar. 26 to submit your Expanded Definition Project on OpenLab (though, you are welcome to submit it earlier when you are ready).

Below, I am including the model for the Expanded Definition Project with a few notes to pay attention to regarding publishing your Expanded Definition Project as a post on our OpenLab Course Site. Watch this week’s lecture for detailed instructions on posting your work to OpenLab.

Your Name's Expanded Definition of YOUR TERM

TO: Prof. Jason Ellis
FROM: Your Name
DATE: Due Date
SUBJECT: Expanded Definition of YOUR TERM

Introduction [Heading Level 2]
What is the purpose of this document? What term are you defining? How are you discussing the way it is defined and the way it is used in context? Describe a road map for what follows (definitions and context). This content should be published as paragraphs, unlike the heading for this section, which is a level 2 heading.

Definitions [Heading Level 2]
Quote several definitions of the term that you selected. Provide quotes and parenthetical citations for each definition, and include your sources in the References section at the end of the document. Each definition that you include deserves discussion in your words about what it means and how it relates to the other definitions that you include. Consider how they are alike, how are they different, who might use one versus another, etc.

Context [Heading Level 2]
Quote several sentences from a variety of sources that use the term in context. A range of sources would provide the best source material for your discussion of how the term is used in these contexts. For example, a quote from an academic journal or two, a quote from a newspaper or magazine, a quote from a blog, and a quote from social media would give you a range of uses that might have different audiences. For each quote, you should devote at least as much space as the quote discussing what it means in that context and how it relates to the other quotes in context. Each quote should be in quotes, have a parenthetical citation, and a bibliographic entry in your references at the end of your document.

Working Definition [Heading Level 2]
Based on the definitions that you quoted and discussed, and the contextual uses of the term that you quoted and discussed, write a working definition of the term that's relevant to your career field or major, which you will need to identify (this is the specific context for your working definition).

References [Heading Level 2]
Order your APA-formatted bibliographic references by the author's last name, alphabetically. In your posted version, they do not need a hanging indent. And, they should not be in a bulleted list.

Submission Notes:

• For APA citations, refer to the Purdue OWL’s APA guide and if you do any indirect quotes, use this guide on the Simon Fraser Library’s website.
• Remember to remove the bracketed headings information before publishing your work–this is only a guide to help you choose the correct heading levels while creating your post.