Weekly Writing Assignment, Week 5

16 thoughts on “Weekly Writing Assignment, Week 5”

1. TO: Prof. Ellis
   FROM: Kanak Das
   DATE: 10/06/2021
   SUBJECT: Expanded Definition Term: Firewall
   Firewall is one of the important topic on Information technology. The purpose of the memo indicates that the computer or the network we use; how it can protect our information, data and applications. There are also other terms that goes along with Firewall, such as Wireless security, Network Security, Virtual private network (VPN), Virus, Ransomware. Some resources I have used for research to focus on my term is Forcepoint, Vmware, Dictionary.com. the term I have selected to focus is Firewall; A firewall is a network security device that monitors incoming and outgoing network traffic. My interest in computer is mostly network security where firewall comes up big when computer or network requires protection from hackers or malicious users.
   “A firewall is a network security device that monitors incoming and outgoing network traffic and decides whether to allow or block specific traffic based on a defined set of security rules.” “Advanced firewall can no longer single-handedly defend a network against today’s complex cyber threat landscape, these devices are still considered to be the foundational building block for creating a proper cybersecurity system”. From these two quoted definitions we can understand that firewall might protect network from malicious traffic, but it’s still not capable enough to stop higher complicated attack or threat. While in network firewall can be divided int two types of protection proxy and stateful, which decided what to use when, proxy can be regularly use for any kind of websites that the users might think it’s not safe website to work on. On the other hand, stateful monitors the full state of active network connections. This means that stateful firewalls are constantly analyzing the complete context of traffic and data packets.
   Moreover “traditional” firewall, a stateful inspection firewall allows or blocks traffic based on state, port, and protocol. It monitors all activity from the opening of a connection until it is closed. Filtering decisions are made based on both administrator-defined rules as well as context, which refers to using information from in previous connections and packets belonging to the same connection.” And “and applications crossing through the network perimeters – especially due to the growing volume of IoT and end user devices – and less overall centralized control from IT and security teams, companies are becoming much more vulnerable to cyberattacks.” These two sentences basically talk about the fact that stateful inspection firewalls and application crossing through a specific network can be harmful for the company and for the applications itself. When data or packets being transfer form one network to another if the stateful firewall don’t investigate those packets or file a company’s or any firms information can be in wrong hands.
   In conclusion, Firewall term can be referred as where protection is needed. Whether it’s in computer, hardware, software. A firewall acts as a defensive border by helping to protect your computer from hackers, blocking malware from penetrating your system, and removing sensitive data from a compromised system. Such as stateful Firewalls scan each “packet” of data, small chunks of a larger whole, reduced in size for easy transmission, to make sure these packets don’t contain anything malicious. and interacts with the internet they come between you and the internet and thereby prevents direct connections this protects your device’s identity and keeps the network safe from potential attacks.

   1. “Firewall.” Fine Dictionary, http://www.finedictionary.com/firewall.html.
   2. “Firewall Definition and Meaning: Collins English Dictionary.” Firewall Definition and Meaning | Collins English Dictionary, HarperCollins Publishers Ltd, https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/firewall.
   3. “What Is a Network Firewall?” Fortinet, https://www.fortinet.com/resources/cyberglossary/firewall.
   4. “What Is a Network Firewall?” Fortinet, https://www.fortinet.com/resources/cyberglossary/firewall.

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2. TO: Prof. Ellis
   FROM: Shuaixiang Feng
   DATE: 10/5/2021
   SUBJECT: Expanded Definition Term: Digital, Final Draft

   Introduction
   The purpose of the Word Expanded Definition Term memo is to focus a term on its etymology and historical development, looking for the inconsistent meaning and how it uses in a different area. Digital is the word I have chosen for the Word Expanded Definition Term project. This paper will discuss digital in two different working areas and how this term defines the meaning of those two kinds of audiences—also contrasting the definition in different timelines to investigate how its context changes.
   Definitions
   Digital can define as “Chiefly humorous. Any of the fingers (including the thumb) of the hand.” [1] This etymology was around the 1300s. In human history, people like to use their fingers as a calculator. People are familiar with defining digital as their fingers of the hand. Another definition has its distinct vision. Digital is “composed of data in the form of especially binary digits.” [2] Digital has become a concept that is using in the computing area. Currently, the development technology can observe digits, but in the past, people could only use their fingers to represent the whole number between one to nine. While people used their fingers to count one to nine, that was the origin of Math and Algorithm. Every number we knew started from understood the finger of our hands. From first-person definite and use this term as meaning to 2021, the definition of digital is increasing and updating. However, the digital, composed of data and binary digits, is still a Math and Algorithm.
   Context
   Following Fraser’s magazine for town and country, “Hundreds of thousands vanish at the touch of royal digitals,” [3] by James Fraser. The word digital is used as a noun in this sentence. “At the touch of royal digitals’, where people used to touch something? So digital represent a hand from Britain, which means the power of Britain eliminated thousands of people in Fraser. In so many countries, military power is loyal to the king or noble for protecting their life and property. So, they control their military power like controlling their hand because no media and others can affect the military.
   Another author states his point of view on the word digital. “In today’s digital age, technology has a firm grasp on practically every aspect of human life; consequently, there is growing cross-sector demand to help individuals build digital competencies such as digital literacy, digital skills, and digital readiness.” [4] Over here, digital uses as an adjective and means any composed of the data item. The author states that the word digital means an electronic product composed of data, and binary digits are essential today. Electronic products are increasing numerous amounts in many industries. No digital industry is decreasing, which makes authors wondering is it require to help the employee build digital literacy, digital skills, and digital readiness. As we know, a considerable number of elders are working in many industries. They are still using the old cell phone, which can only take a call and send mail. Suppose a company is not wanting to quit those experienced employees. Those companies require to update or rebuild the digital knowledge of those elders.
   Working Definition
   Currently, in CST, digital is always used as an adjective and surrounds every people work in CST. Every product has a screen and OS that can call as digital items such as smartphones or laptops because every byte in the program and OS are all meaning data. So, all electronic products can definite as digital. Following the technology development, Artificial Intelligence may join in with some industries; computer science technology is the possible area that Artificial Intelligence joined. Artificial Intelligence looks much different from other electronic products, and it has intelligence. However, Artificial Intelligence is still defined as digital because AI is a program made by data. That is why Artificial Intelligence can call as a digital item. As programmer uses computer language to establish and create more new technology, the word is becoming more digital.
   Reference
   [1] “digital, n. and adj.” OED Online, Oxford University Press, September 2021, http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/52611. Accessed 4 October 2021.
   [2] “Digital.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/digital. Accessed 4 Oct. 2021.
   [3] James Fraser,” Fraser’s magazine for town and country.” Fraser’s Mag. 22 397, 1830
   [4] “IEEE Standard for Digital Intelligence (DQ)–Framework for Digital Literacy, Skills, and Readiness,” in IEEE Std 3527.1-2020 , vol., no., pp.1-47, 15 Jan. 2021, doi: 10.1109/IEEESTD.2021.9321783.

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3. TO: Prof. Ellis
   FROM: Shuaixiang Feng
   DATE: 10/5/2021
   SUBJECT: Expanded Definition Term: Digital, Final Draft

   Introduction
   The purpose of the Word Expanded Definition Term memo is to focus a term on its etymology and historical development, looking for the inconsistent meaning and how it uses in a different area. Digital is the word I have chosen for the Word Expanded Definition Term project. This paper will discuss digital in two different working areas and how this term defines the meaning of those two kinds of audiences—also contrasting the definition in different timelines to investigate how its context changes.
   Definitions
   Digital can define as “Chiefly humorous. Any of the fingers (including the thumb) of the hand.” [1] This etymology was around the 1300s. In human history, people like to use their fingers as a calculator. People are familiar with defining digital as their fingers of the hand. Another definition has its distinct vision. Digital is “composed of data in the form of especially binary digits.” [2] Digital has become a concept that is using in the computing area. Currently, the development technology can observe digits, but in the past, people could only use their fingers to represent the whole number between one to nine. While people used their fingers to count one to nine, that was the origin of Math and Algorithm. Every number we knew started from understood the finger of our hands. From first-person definite and use this term as meaning to 2021, the definition of digital is increasing and updating. However, the digital, composed of data and binary digits, is still a Math and Algorithm.
   Context
   Following Fraser’s magazine for town and country, “Hundreds of thousands vanish at the touch of royal digitals,” [3] by James Fraser. The word digital is used as a noun in this sentence. “At the touch of royal digitals’, where people used to touch something? So digital represent a hand from Britain, which means the power of Britain eliminated thousands of people in Fraser. In so many countries, military power is loyal to the king or noble for protecting their life and property. So, they control their military power like controlling their hand because no media and others can affect the military.
   Another author states his point of view on the word digital. “In today’s digital age, technology has a firm grasp on practically every aspect of human life; consequently, there is growing cross-sector demand to help individuals build digital competencies such as digital literacy, digital skills, and digital readiness.” [4] Over here, digital uses as an adjective and means any composed of the data item. The author states that the word digital means an electronic product composed of data, and binary digits are essential today. Electronic products are increasing numerous amounts in many industries. No digital industry is decreasing, which makes authors wondering is it require to help the employee build digital literacy, digital skills, and digital readiness. As we know, a considerable number of elders are working in many industries. They are still using the old cell phone, which can only take a call and send mail. Suppose a company is not wanting to quit those experienced employees. Those companies require to update or rebuild the digital knowledge of those elders.
   Working Definition
   Currently, in CST, digital is always used as an adjective and surrounds every people work in CST. Every product has a screen and OS that can call as digital items such as smartphones or laptops because every byte in the program and OS are all meaning data. So, all electronic products can definite as digital. Following the technology development, Artificial Intelligence may join in with some industries; computer science technology is the possible area that Artificial Intelligence joined. Artificial Intelligence looks much different from other electronic products, and it has intelligence. However, Artificial Intelligence is still defined as digital because AI is a program made by data. That is why Artificial Intelligence can call as a digital item. As programmer uses computer language to establish and create more new technology, the word is becoming more digital.
   Reference
   [1] “digital, n. and adj.” OED Online, Oxford University Press, September 2021, http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/52611. Accessed 4 October 2021.
   [2] “Digital.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/digital. Accessed 4 Oct. 2021.
   [3] James Fraser,” Fraser’s magazine for town and country.” Fraser’s Mag. 22 397, 1830
   [4] “IEEE Standard for Digital Intelligence (DQ)–Framework for Digital Literacy, Skills, and Readiness,” in IEEE Std 3527.1-2020 , vol., no., pp.1-47, 15 Jan. 2021, doi: 10.1109/IEEESTD.2021.9321783.

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4. TO: Prof. Ellis
   FROM: DeAndre Badresingh
   DATE: 10/13/2021
   SUBJECT: Expanded Definition of Malware

   Introduction
   The purpose of this document is to discuss the expanded definition of my term malware. The term that I will be defining is malware in which I will discuss the previous definition and current usage of this term. In addition, I will be giving examples of how malware was used before and after updated definitions. After discussing this, I plan to divide the history of the word into different sections while also providing different ways this term was used. For example, in chronological order starting from the earliest date, I will quote how the word was defined and how the word was implemented when being discussed. Finally, towards the end I will discuss the definition but in my own way to describe it to individuals who are not so familiar with the use of this word.
   Definitions
   The history of malware goes back to as far back as the early 1970s. As the years progressed, this term has changed to mean different things yet still have the same concept. In an article that discusses the previous history of malware, there were several definitions that were used to identify this word. One of which included, “An experiment designed to test how a program might move between computers.” [1] Back then, as shown in this quote, malware was once used as an experiment to see how different programs on a device interact with each other. However, moving on to the mid-1970s, the definition for the word had been more inclusive to what it really is. It was then described as “A self-replicating program that made multiple copies of itself on a computer until it bogs down the system to such an extent that system performance is reduced and eventually crashes.” [1] These definitions are both similar to one another in the sense that they both describe how malware is incorporated inside a system. However, the way in which it was implemented was vastly different from one another.
   Context
   While there have been many versions of malware, the way how it is constructed varies. For example, the earliest definition of malware described it as an “experiment” while a more recent definition defines it as “Programs written with the intent of being disruptive or damaging to (the user of) a computer or other electronic device; viruses, worms, spyware, etc., collectively.” [3] The way how they would be used in sentences would be based on their definitions. Early definition sentences describe it as, “Malware authors disguised one of the earliest Trojans as a popular shareware program called “PC-Writer.” Once on a system, it would erase all of a user’s files.” Another most recent way malware would be used in sentences would involve, “Malware can assume many forms, from standard computer viruses to spyware and adware. Individuals may even choose to install malicious software because the malware masquerades as a beneficial program or application. Malware can cause catastrophic damage to a computer’s software, The damage malware can do to privacy may not be as obvious but it is equally, if not more, detrimental.” [2] The way how these sentences would relate to each other is that they all show how malware interacts and causes damage to its host. As explained in the quote, malware is extremely dangerous and sometimes presents itself as unpredictable.
   Working Definition
   Based on the definitions from as early as the 1970s and from more recent definitions, they are all similar in the sense of how the word is actually used. That being said, a working definition for malware would be a software, file, or other content on a system that has the potential to cause substantial damage. Some instances of this includes viruses, phishing, ransomware, denial-of-service, spyware, man-in-the-middle, zero-day, attack replication vectors, and much more. All of these forms of disruption all fall under the branch of malware which makes defining this term very vague. As described by this article, “Today, malware is no longer confined to individuals acting alone on the Internet, nor is it as easy to detect, even for the most perceptive computer users.” [2] Hence, we have seen the progression of malware origin from being just an experiment, to being more specified to various types like trojans, to worm infections that can be undetected. Nonetheless, the origins of malware and how it is described now is very similar to each other. In conclusion, you must always remember that malware is made by humans and we cannot satisfy everyone. So, you can always defend yourself against malware attacks.

   References:
   [1] P. by J. Love and J. Love, “A brief history of malware-its evolution and impact,” Lastline, 19-Sep-2019. [Online]. Available: https://www.lastline.com/blog/history-of-malware-its-evolution-and-impact/.
   [2] Baker, A. (2015) ‘Malware’ in Anglim, C.T., ed., Privacy Rights in the Digital Age, Amenia, NY: Grey House Publishing, 339-342, Available: https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX6403900139/GVRL?u=cuny_nytc&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=ccefd7de
   [3] “Malware, in Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed, Oxford University Press, Dec. 2006, def.1 Available: https://www.oed.com

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5. To: Professor Ellis
   From: Brandon A Sosa
   Date: October 12th, 2021
   Title: Expanded Word-Definition: Central Processing Unit FINAL

   [Introduction]
   The purpose of this document is to expand on the definition of “Central Processing Unit”. This word is mentioned multiple times throughout the CST (Computer Information Systems) department and is mentioned in the first introductory classes. I will be discussing the origin of the word and when the word was first introduced and who coined it. I will also be looking and researching through the dictionary and the references to find interesting information about the word. After, I will organize the information into each perspective category detailing its Context, Definition, and Working Definition. Then include my references at the end.

   [Definition/Etymology]
   There are various but similar definitions of “Central Processing Unit”. As a student who is in the field of Technology, I say that my own definition of the Central processing unit is that it controls all functions inside the phone, tablet, and computer. It controls the input and outputs of all the daily tasks the user is recommending. The Oxford English Dictionary, states “Computing a component of a computer system that runs programs, performs processing, and controls and coordinates the activity of other components”.[1] This definition gives a vague but helpful description of what a central processing unit is. Some people researching the definition might need a more in-depth definition of what the word is. In the Oxford Reference text, I was able to find a definition of the word but in more detail. It said, “A CPU usually consists of two units: the control unit organizes the data and program storage in the memory and transfers data and other information between the various parts of the system; the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) executes the arithmetic and logic operations, such as addition, multiplication, and comparison.” [2] This definition in comparison to the first definition is a lot more detailed and it specifies what the CPU is doing inside the selected device.

   [Context]
   When comparing both definitions of the Central Processing Unit, it provides details about what it is and how it performs, on the other hand, the first definition is short and gives good but vague detailing about what it does for the computer/phone or tablet. The 2nd definition highlights and gives details on what the central processing unit is, how it works, the components that are inside of it to help run programs and execute tasks. What really stands out between both definitions are the keywords that there using. Both definitions have similar keywords, but the one definition uses keywords such as “ALU” when the other definition didn’t use it. In a textbook, when talked about the CPU the author goes in-depth about what the CPU is and what the main functions it is. His definition of the CPU is different from the 1st and 2nd definitions because the author is adding more context to it. The author stated “The CPU is responsible for manipulating data and coordinating the activities of the computer’s other physical components, including memory and peripherals. Instructions gathered from input interfaces are executed at the CPU, and the results are delivered to output interfaces. The CPU, therefore, functions as the heart of the computer, facilitating all data processing activity.” [3] This definition gives an accurate detailed description of what and how the CPU functions. It also makes the comparison of how it is “the heart” of the computer and that it controls all the task and programs that the user requests.
   [Working Definition]
   In the CST department, when learning about the internal components of the computer, phone, or tablet the Central Processing Unit is always mentioned. In my own definition, I would say the Central Processing Unit is the heart of the computer. It controls all tasks and programs that come in by the user and it executes the task/programs all accordingly. The central processing unit is the brains of the entire operation and every commend must go through it so that it is executing functions in a timely matter. Throughout all the years, the Central Processing Unit will always be updated, it will never stay the same. There’s a saying that just because it’s not broken, doesn’t mean that it cannot be improved.

   [References]
   [1] “Central Processing Unit,” in Oxford English Dictionary. 3rd ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press, Mar. 2013, def. 2. [Online]. Available:https://www-oed-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/Entry/29680?redirectedFrom=central+processing+unit#eid9942421
   [2] Butterfield, A., & Szymanski, J. (2018). memory. In A Dictionary of Electronics and Electrical Engineering. : Oxford University Press. Retrieved 12 Oct. 2021, from https://www-oxfordreference-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/10.1093/acref/9780198725725.001.0001/acref-9780198725725-e-2926.
   [3] Lerner, K. L., & Lerner, B. W. (2013). Computer Sciences. Macmillan Reference USA, a part of Gale, Cengage Learning.

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6. TO: Prof. Jason Ellis
   FROM: Ulises Mora
   DATE: 10/12/2021
   SUBJECT: Expanded Definition of Chromakey

   Context

   In order to better explain and understand this word, I will compare between three sources where it is used. The first, in a book called Broadcast Journalism, which is about different technical aspects of television and news, including personal and everything related to technology. In a specific section about the weather forecast, Eadie explain the illusion that they create with the chromakey so that the audience can see the graphic design that they create behind the subject that gives the forecast: “The visual aids you see behind them on the screen. In reality, there is nothing behind them in the studio except a green wall. A technology called chromakey inserts the graphics electronically.” [4, p. 639]. Letting us know that the background change process, where everything green is digitally exchanged for another background, in this case the weather graph that is presented in the weather news, due to the chromakey.
   Through an article from the New York Times from the 90’s, we can assimilate chromakey in the same way and that the definition and use of this word does not change. The article talks about a science fair for children that happened in Manhattan, many years ago, in which one of the expositions involved a special background effect. Leimbach says: ““While the child manipulates the cameras, including a chromakey, which can superimpose Mom against a snowy backdrop and create the illusion that she’s flying. The results are then projected onto monitors.” [5]. Again, chromakey works a magic to completely change the background and create an illusion for anyone looking at something completely different on the monitor. All this due to a completely green setting (mostly.) However, the chromakey does not necessarily have to be to exchange one background for another background. This technical tool also allows the background completely to disappear. According to streamscheme.com, a website to help anyone who wants to start streaming with guides and tips. Luci says:” Live-streamers generally use a green screen to block out their backgrounds entirely, allowing their viewers to see more of their content.” [6]. This means that chromakey is used to make more than just a background. In movies, especially fictions movies, chromakey is presented. In scenes where people have to levitate something, there is a person disguised completely in green (mostly,) this person becomes invisible through the chromakey allowing this illusion of levitation occur.

   Working Definition

   Afterwards of having compared chromakey’s definition, of having seen it in action in different contexts and how it is similar. I would define chromakey as the technique of using a monotonous color (specifically green) to change, insert or alter the color to create a desired image or fade the color for digital design purposes for any audience that is going to watch it through the screen. This technique will be very helpful for me when I begin to specialize in animation or film productions in special effects, because it is what the movies contain this process in almost all the scenes, but the audience cannot see this magic illusion.

   References:

   [4] William, Eadie, Broadcast Journalism.” 21st Century Communication: A Reference Handbook, vol. 2, SAGE Publications, 21st Century Reference Series. 2009. pp. 635-642. [Online] Available: Gale eBooks (Accessed 8 October 2021.)
   [5] D, Leimbach, ” For Children,” The New York Times, Aug. 4, 1995. [Online]. Available: https://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/04/arts/for-children.html?searchResultPosition=1 (Accessed 8 October 2021)
   [6] Luci, “How to set-up a green screen for streaming [Twitch & YouTube gaming].” Streamscheme, Available: https://www.streamscheme.com/how-to-set-up-a-green-screen-for-streaming-on-twitch (Accessed 8 October 2021.)

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7. To: Prof: J. Ellis
   From: Quazi Hedayet
   Date: 10/12/2021
   Subject: 750-word Expanded Definition of Cloud Computing

   INTRODUCTION

   The goal of this article is to explore the history of a phrase for computer system technology students. “Cloud Computing” is the word I am defining. While the majority of people are chasing short-term advancement of technologies and networking policies, so I would like to take a different approach to representing the concept of cloud computing, one in which the user’s privacy and security concerns are paramount in the development of a long-term cloud computing solution. In this paper, I’ll go through the definitions of the phrase as well as the context in which it is used.

   DEFINITION

   The Oxford English Dictionary defines cloud computing as “the use of networked facilities for the storage and processing of data rather than a user’s local computer, access to data or services typically being via the internet.” Cloud computing is the distribution of on-demand computing resources over the internet and on a pay as you go basis, ranging from software to storage and processing power. Cloud computing is the on-demand availability of computer system resources, especially data storage (cloud storage) and computing power, without direct active control by the user. In other words, cloud computing is the use of network facilities for the storage and processing of data rather than a user’s local computer, access to data or services. Cloud computing is on-demand access, via the internet, to computing resources applications, servers, data storage, development tools, networking capabilities, and more hosted at a remote data center managed by a cloud services provider (CSP). The CSP makes these resources available for a monthly subscription fee or bills them according to usage. The term “cloud computing” also refers to the infrastructure that enables cloud computing to function. This includes virtualized IT infrastructure, which consists of servers, operating system software, networking, and other infrastructure that has been abstracted using special software and can be pooled and divided across physical hardware boundaries.

   CONTEXT

   According to this journal article “Secure Integration of IOT and Cloud Computing”, “Cloud infrastructure involves the hardware and software components required for proper implementation of a cloud computing model. Cloud computing can also be thought of as utility computing, or on-demand computing” (Stergiou et al., 2018, p. 964). Instead of owning their own computer resources or data centers, companies can rent access to anything from apps to storage from a cloud service provider, according to the authors. One advantage of cloud computing is that companies can escape the upfront costs and complexities of owning and managing their own IT infrastructure by paying only for what they need, when they use it. Mobile Cloud Computing is a relatively modern technology that refers to an infrastructure that stores and processes data outside of the mobile device. The Internet of Things is a relatively new technology. Another article “cloud computing acceptance among public sector employees” stated that “However, in today’s rapidly changing technology, with the transition to the industrial revolution 4.0 (IR 4.0) environment, it has opened a new dimension to the world computing. The emergence of cloud computing technology as a new platform for computing has opened the eyes of technology industry players to further benefit from this innovation. Many studies have proven that this technology provides many benefits to the industry and users such as its ability to reduce operating costs, improve collaboration, more secure security levels and more mobile accessibility” (Amron et al., 2021, p.124). The idea of business agility is often stated by cloud proponents as a major advantage. Companies that use cloud platforms can move faster on projects and try out ideas without having to go through lengthy procurement processes or incur large upfront costs because they only pay for the tools they use. Turning the eyes into the mobile clouding the authors states that, “Mobile Cloud Computing is a new technology which refers to an infrastructure where both data storage and data processing operate outside of the mobile device” (Stergiou et al., 2018, p. 964). The ability to spin up new services without the time and effort associated with traditional IT procurement should mean that is easier to get going with new applications faster. The Internet of Things (IoT) is a relatively new telecommunications technology that is quickly gaining popularity. The authors also stated that, “Cloud computing also cuts costs related to downtime. Since downtime rarely happens in cloud computing, companies don’t have to spend time and money to fix any issues that may be related to downtime” (Stergiou et al., 2018, p. 964).

   WORKING DEFINITION

   Cloud computing is related to the key computer system technology, according to the definition and quotes I discussed. Cloud computing, in my perspective, is the supply of a variety of services, including data storage, servers, databases, networking, and software. It also enables us to save or work on files remotely in databases, as well as recover them as needed. Cloud computing is incredibly convenient since it eliminates the need for us to be concerned about computer crashes. It saves files and allows access to them via the internet.

   REFERENCES

   • Oxford University Press. (n.d.). Cloud Computing. In Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved March 1, 2021, from https://www-oed-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/Entry/34689?redirectedFrom=cloud+computing#eid189443962

   • Stergiou, C., Psannis, K., Kim, B., & Gupta, B. (2018). Secure integration of IoT and Cloud Computing. Future Generation Computer Systems, 78, 964–975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.future.2016.11.031

   • Amron, M. T., Ibrahim, R., &Bakar, N. A. (2021). Cloud Computing Acceptance Among Public Sector Employees. Telkomnika, 19(1), 124-133. https://doi.org10.12928/TELKOMNIKA.v19i1.17883

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8. To: Prof: J. Ellis

   From: Quazi Hedayet

   Date: 10/06/2021

   Subject: 750-word Expanded Definition of Cloud Computing

   INTRODUCTION

   The goal of this article is to explore the history of a phrase for computer system technology students. “Cloud Computing” is the word I am defining. While the majority of people are chasing short-term advancement of technologies and networking policies, so I would like to take a different approach to representing the concept of cloud computing, one in which the user’s privacy and security concerns are paramount in the development of a long-term cloud computing solution. In this paper, I’ll go through the definitions of the phrase as well as the context in which it is used.

   DEFINITION

   The Oxford English Dictionary defines cloud computing as “the use of networked facilities for the storage and processing of data rather than a user’s local computer, access to data or services typically being via the internet.” Cloud computing is the distribution of on-demand computing resources over the internet and on a pay as you go basis, ranging from software to storage and processing power. Cloud computing is the on-demand availability of computer system resources, especially data storage (cloud storage) and computing power, without direct active control by the user. In other words, cloud computing is the use of network facilities for the storage and processing of data rather than a user’s local computer, access to data or services. Cloud computing is on-demand access, via the internet, to computing resources applications, servers, data storage, development tools, networking capabilities, and more hosted at a remote data center managed by a cloud services provider (CSP). The CSP makes these resources available for a monthly subscription fee or bills them according to usage. The term “cloud computing” also refers to the infrastructure that enables cloud computing to function. This includes virtualized IT infrastructure, which consists of servers, operating system software, networking, and other infrastructure that has been abstracted using special software and can be pooled and divided across physical hardware boundaries.

   CONTEXT

   According to this journal article “Secure Integration of IOT and Cloud Computing”, “Cloud infrastructure involves the hardware and software components required for proper implementation of a cloud computing model. Cloud computing can also be thought of as utility computing, or on-demand computing” (Stergiou et al., 2018, p. 964). Instead of owning their own computer resources or data centers, companies can rent access to anything from apps to storage from a cloud service provider, according to the authors. One advantage of cloud computing is that companies can escape the upfront costs and complexities of owning and managing their own IT infrastructure by paying only for what they need, when they use it. Mobile Cloud Computing is a relatively modern technology that refers to an infrastructure that stores and processes data outside of the mobile device. The Internet of Things is a relatively new technology. Another article “cloud computing acceptance among public sector employees” stated that “However, in today’s rapidly changing technology, with the transition to the industrial revolution 4.0 (IR 4.0) environment, it has opened a new dimension to the world computing. The emergence of cloud computing technology as a new platform for computing has opened the eyes of technology industry players to further benefit from this innovation. Many studies have proven that this technology provides many benefits to the industry and users such as its ability to reduce operating costs, improve collaboration, more secure security levels and more mobile accessibility” (Amron et al., 2021, p.124). The idea of business agility is often stated by cloud proponents as a major advantage. Companies that use cloud platforms can move faster on projects and try out ideas without having to go through lengthy procurement processes or incur large upfront costs because they only pay for the tools they use. Turning the eyes into the mobile clouding the authors states that, “Mobile Cloud Computing is a new technology which refers to an infrastructure where both data storage and data processing operate outside of the mobile device” (Stergiou et al., 2018, p. 964). The ability to spin up new services without the time and effort associated with traditional IT procurement should mean that is easier to get going with new applications faster. The Internet of Things (IoT) is a relatively new telecommunications technology that is quickly gaining popularity. The authors also stated that, “Cloud computing also cuts costs related to downtime. Since downtime rarely happens in cloud computing, companies don’t have to spend time and money to fix any issues that may be related to downtime” (Stergiou et al., 2018, p. 964).

   WORKING DEFINITION

   Cloud computing is related to the key computer system technology, according to the definition and quotes I discussed. Cloud computing, in my perspective, is the supply of a variety of services, including data storage, servers, databases, networking, and software. It also enables us to save or work on files remotely in databases, as well as recover them as needed. Cloud computing is incredibly convenient since it eliminates the need for us to be concerned about computer crashes. It saves files and allows access to them via the internet.

   REFERENCES

   • Oxford University Press. (n.d.). Cloud Computing. In Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved March 1, 2021, from https://www-oed-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/Entry/34689?redirectedFrom=cloud+computing#eid189443962

   • Stergiou, C., Psannis, K., Kim, B., & Gupta, B. (2018). Secure integration of IoT and Cloud Computing. Future Generation Computer Systems, 78, 964–975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.future.2016.11.031

   • Amron, M. T., Ibrahim, R., &Bakar, N. A. (2021). Cloud Computing Acceptance Among Public Sector Employees. Telkomnika, 19(1), 124-133. https://doi.org10.12928/TELKOMNIKA.v19i1.17883

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9. TO: Prof. Jason Ellis
   FROM: Jiaqi Huang
   DATE: Oct 13, 2021
   SUBJECT: Expanded Definition of Virtual

   Introduction
   The purpose of this document is to elaborate on the word I pick for the expanded definition project. I picked three words at the beginning, virtual, network and space. The term Network is kind of a new word, it doesn’t have that much history than the other two terms. I can not get enough information for the expanding project. For the term space, we know it is a big prerequisite for everything to work normally, computer systems are no exception. But the term space is an old word and has various meanings in different areas. It can represent time, the universe, etc. Though it has such various meanings, the term virtual is more related to my major computer information system, and it is also more representative in the computer field, which means it is more close to a special word for a specific area. At least people now heard the term virtual will associated with computer stuff immediately. The term space is not only used in academic fields, we also use it in our daily life. That’s why I chose the term virtual instead of space. The term virtual has been clearly pointed out to the “virtual technology” in the past few years. As new technology in these years, virtual technology is relatively mature than others and there is considerable room for development, no matter the technology itself or in the applied fields.

   Definitions
   The origin of the term “virtual” is borrowed from Latin and has a long history we can look back on. There are a lot of meanings of “ virtual”. At first, it represented “Inherently powerful or effective owing to particular natural qualities”[1] in “See if the Virtuall Heat of the Wine, or Strong Waters will not mature it.” from Sylva sylvarum. Most of the Other definitions at first also related to power. However, they were Obsoleted because it is no longer in line with usage habits or we can say it was too far away from how we use the term now. When people talk about virtual, it mainly means a kind of technology. In Proc. Eastern’s Joint Computer Conf actually used the term virtual at a description “The sole function of the virtual memory is to increase machine speed”, which we can conclude it “being on or simulated on a computer or computer network.”[2]

   Context
   In the article “Virtual reality environment using a dome screen for procedural pain in young children during intravenous placement: A pilot randomized controlled trial ” there is a description using the term virtual. It stated, “Virtual reality (VR), often referred to as a virtual environment, is a computer technology that enables users to view or ‘immerse’ themselves in an alternate world, and it is attracting attention as a digital distraction technique”.[3] in this statement, the term virtual had been clearly defined as a kind of computer technology. The term virtual inherently carries a fake meaning, it presents something that does not truly exist in reality. That’s why the article used the statement “immerse’ themselves in an alternate world”, a world built by a computer that can not physically touch it. And just like what I stated in the definition section, the term virtual has totally different meanings in the past. Based on P. Miller’s Gardeners & Florists Dict, we can find he used the term virtual in a sentence that “the virtual Qualities of the Sun and Air, [vapours] are formed into Clouds.”[4] In this situation, we can consider that virtual is an inherent power of nature. In the 1700s, the secret of nature had not yet deciphered. The science ability in that age was not enough to figure out the physical principle so it is suitable to use the word virtual to present something powerful while unreachable.

   Work Definition
   Obviously, in the computer information system field, the term virtual is the name of a computer technology. From the past till now, virtual always carries the meaning of fake and out of understanding in the past, and artificially created, non-physical existing in modern science. Virtual is a technology with a lot of possibilities in various areas and it has a big room to develop. In industry and the medical field, it can provide a safer and more efficient environment for users’ training. In game areas, it brings a totally new experience to gamers and a new direction to game makers, same for other art areas. So I will define the term virtual as a technology “being on or simulated on a computer or computer network”.

   References
   [1]”virtual, adj. and n.” OED Online, Oxford University Press, September 2021, http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/223829. Accessed 6 October 2021.
   [2]“Virtual.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/virtual. Accessed 6 Oct. 2021.
   [3]Lee, Ha Ni, et al. “Virtual Reality Environment Using a Dome Screen for Procedural Pain in Young Children during Intravenous Placement: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial.” PLoS ONE, vol. 16, no. 8, Aug. 2021, pp. 1–11. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0256489.
   [4]P. Miller, “Gardeners & Florists Dict,” The Oxford English Dictionary, Oct. 12, 2021. Available: https://www-oed-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/Entry/223829?redirectedFrom=virtual#eid

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10. TO: Prof. Ellis
    FROM: Ron Bepat
    DATE: 10/13/2021
    SUBJECT: Expanded Definition of Encryption,

    Introduction:
    The Purpose of this document is too Elaborate on the word Encryption finding the historical references from where this term had started, and how the term’s definition has evolved throughout history. The term encryption will be compared from its older and modern versions. I will be discussing the way it’s defined by explaining how encryption works in full detail and the processes it takes to make sure a piece of data is safe. Breaking down the meaning behind encryption and why it’s so important in the tech industry to encrypt data in world where there are so many hackers out in the open stealing data. Data currently is as important as someone’s social security number a person’s online security and identity are important as this data can be easily stolen if not managed properly.

    Definitions:
    According to the Oxford Dictionary the term Encryption was first used in the 1960s in the Navy. [1] “Proc. U.S. Naval Inst. Dec. 38/1 After giving the message..to the waiting code clerk for encryption..I strolled about the Consulate grounds. ” They would make secret messages to each other. Which is what Encryption really is, To take a message and it mix up so only certain people can understand it or so a normal person can crack the code on what the data is. Another example from the Oxford Dictionary is a type of language which is similar to encryption called Morse Code. [5] “code devised by Morse for use with the electric telegraph, in which the letters are represented by combinations of long and short electrical signals represented audibly or visually, or by long and short flashes of light or (in writing) dashes and dots.” This Definition was first used back in 1867. This connection between morse code and the modern word encryption is similar as only certain people recognizes morse code.
    The only people who can understand the message would be the sender and the receiver. The sender would be the one who creates the unreadable code to the sender. It doesn’t have to be a message, but it can be any form of data. Another definition from The Britannica is [2] “Data encryption, also called encryption or encipherment, the process of disguising information as ciphertext, or data unintelligible to an unauthorized person. Conversely, decryption, or decipherment, is the process of converting ciphertext back into its original format. Manual encryption has been used since Roman times, but the term has become associated with the disguising of information via electronic computers. Encryption is a process basic to cryptology.” This form of communication is so secretive that it can help send important information without an untrusted person to understand it or access that information. The type of encryption where someone sends unorganized info to another is called end – to – end encryption which is also used today all these years later in the form of emails and text messages. These types of messages are only allowed to be viewed by the sender, if a hacker would pull up a WhatsApp chat, they will just see a bunch of encrypted text.

    Context:
    This is a quote from Norton a company based on securing and protecting data. [3] “To unlock the message, both the sender and the recipient have to use a “secret” encryption key — a collection of algorithms that scramble and unscramble data back to a readable format.” This process needs. Encryption key because without that key data can’t be locked or unlocked. Here is another quote from an academic journal called “Information security analysis of deterministic encryption and chaotic encryption in spatial domain and frequency domain” [4] “In cryptography, encryption and decryption are used to protect privacy and confidentiality of transmitted data via the process of encoding and decoding, so that the authorized parties are able to access it exclusively.” Encryption keys can be used for both unlocking and locking data so when a hacker doesn’t have a key, they try to make their own by using ransomware to break into the data and revealing the message or what data is being stores
    Working Definition:
    Currently encryption is mainly use in the cyber security, database, networking, and programming fields mainly to protect people’s data. To encrypt data in the programming field is to prevent any outsiders from stealing a person’s code. The user may need to use a program to juggle the data into a message that is more obscured and does not look like the original data. This data can only be deciphered by converting the texting using a decryption program. A person would need the technology mainly a working computer to either decrypting or encrypt the data. The user has 2 keys a decryption key and an encryption key, each key is only used for their specific purposes, for example a user can’t use the encryption key to decrypt the data they would need to use the decryption key for that. If a coworker asked to open a certain piece of data that they don’t have access to they would have to go to the system administrator of the network and ask for permissions to this data by offering them the decryption key. A person can also make their own algorithms to encrypt their data using any code they chose fit to edit the data. Once the text is encrypted as a result it is essentially unreadable and this text is called cipher text.

    References:
    [1] “”encrypt, v.” OED Online. Oxford University Press, September 2021. Web. 14 October 2021,
    https://www-oed-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/Entry/242722.

    [2] “Data Encryption.” Brittanica Academic https://academic-eb-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/levels/collegiate/article/data-encryption/2217.

    [3] Written by Alison Grace Johansen for NortonLifeLock. “What Is Encryption and How Does It Protect Your Data?” Norton, https://us.norton.com/internetsecurity-privacy-what-is-encryption.html.

    [4] Z. Ye, H. Yin and Y. Ye, “Information security analysis of deterministic encryption and chaotic encryption in spatial domain and frequency domain,” 2017 14th International Conference on Electrical Engineering, Computing Science and Automatic Control (CCE), 2017, pp. 1-6, doi: 10.1109/ICEEE.2017.8108905.

    [5] “Morse, n.3.” OED Online. Oxford University Press, September 2021. Web. 14 October 2021.
    https://www-oed-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/Entry/122419?redirectedFrom=morse+code#eid36108929

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11. To: Prof. Jason Ellis
    From: Roshel Babayev
    Date: 10/6/2021
    Subject: Expanded Definition of Protection

    Introduction
    I’m writing to elaborate on the definition of the word protection. Protection is a very valuable thing in today’s day and we must understand where it came from and how it works. There will also be valuable examples of how it is used via real world examples and the main purpose of protection. Following will be discussed the context in which it is most commonly used in the use case of computer security.

    Definition
    The generic definition of the word protection is to stop something but that’s not how it’s classified everywhere. Merriam webster defines this word as “to cover or shield from exposure, injury, damage, or destruction : GUARD” [1] while others define it as “the action of protecting”. This word has been around since the beginning of time but in many different forms either being utilized as a means to define protection for a person or today where we use it as a means to describe computer security. The article provides some additional insight on the word “Historically, software protection first appeared as (often feeble) attempts at adding license-checking code to computer games, followed by algorithms for white-box cryptography used for digital-media piracy protection” [3]. Protection has shifted from initially being used in real world situations to digital scenarios as the world gradually moves into the digital age. While protection does have the same meaning behind its definition, the use case in which the definition is applied does in fact change.

    Context
    Security has always been an issue when it comes to software. Most software developers may not even know this but as they proceed in their development process, some vulnerabilities may be in place. A good way to hide these issues is to prevent others from seeing how the code works and functions as a whole. As long as the software is utilized in its intentional manner, there are no real issues to worry about. But there are always people who seek to break and destroy for their own reasons and for these purposes, protection for software was created. Not only doe protection prevents piracy of software, it also attempts to prevent others from reversing it and discovering vulnerabilities within it. Malicious users often times use these methods as a means to gain access to other people’s systems via a vulnerability they never even knew about.
    There are many ways to protect a piece of software. There are means through tamper-proof the software which allows software to verify its own integrity to prevent any sort of unauthorized modification from occurring which can lead to malicious purposes for either reversing of said software or preventing hijacked software from executing. Watermarking is also a possibility to keep your software out of the wrong hands so that if it ever does get publicly exposed, you’ll know where the origin came from and you can handle the problem and prevent it from happening again. There are many methods that you can use to ensure software security via protection but protection has multiple uses either for anti-piracy means or for preventing reversing for malicious purposes. Using software protection may be expensive at times but more than often the cost of security provided by such services is just worth it.
    Some people decide to store valuable information within their software such as including a login to their remote server to perform some action on user login or other events. This login is shipped to everyone who obtains access to this software and nothing is really stopping them from just obtaining this login especially when more than often, it’s stored in plain text. Using software protection ensures that even if someone has your software, it protects valuable pieces of information such as this. In practical usage this is obviously a terrible idea to ship software with such valuable information but things like this do happen quite often in the real development world.

    Working Definition
    A software developer should always be aware of any and all issues that may arise from their code. As a secondary means to prevent any sort of malicious execution, applying protection to your code will ensure an additional level of security as the malicious user will first need to get passed that layer of protection before having the chance at manipulating your code. Protection comes in many forms and there are many ways to protect but as long as it

    [1] https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/protection
    [2] https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/protection
    [3] Falcarin, Paolo et al. “Software Protection.” IEEE software 28.2 (2011): 24–27.

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12. To: Prof. Ellis
    From: Rameen Khan
    Date: 10/13/2021
    Subject: Expanded Definition Term: LINUX
    [Introduction]
    The goal of the Word Expanded Definition Term memo is to emphasize on technical terms and temporal development, as well as compare and contrast its interpretation. And to highlight the most used words in the Computer Information System major. I looked up concepts such as networks, information technology and data analysis beside others related to CIS Major, and considered how extensive the word may be. Linux is the word I’ve picked for my Expanded Word Definition project. Other names I considered include Hardware, Software, CPU, RAM, Encryption, CenOS and Decryption. Based on my preliminary research, I would first describe the word’s historical use, implication, and signification. The earliest use of this word started in 1991 by L. B. Torvalds and in this project, I will talk about how this word has been used differently based on this use of a term over time. Sources that I looked into through (The City Tech) library database will be used to perform my expanded definition, and I wound up utilizing the Oxford English Dictionary, Gale eBook, Oxford English and IEEE Xplore to look for these phrases. My main area of interest in computers is networking and Linux is an important part of the operating system which manages a system’s hardware and resources, like CPU, memory and storage. Linux is also compatible with personal computers, mobile devices, tablet computers, routers, and other embedded systems.
    [Definition/Etymology]
    Linux has a long history, dating back to 1991. This phrase has evolved over time to mean different things while maintaining the same notion. The Oxford English Dictionary Linux defines it as “An open-source operating system modelled on Unix, available in a number of different varieties for use in PCs, servers, and other computing devices” [1]. This Definition tells us that Linux is an open-source operating system which is the software that controls the hardware and functions of a computer, such as the CPU, memory, and storage. Continuing on to the next phase, the word’s definition had been more comprehensive of what it truly is. By 2002 a book was published which was named as “Advanced Linux Networking” by Roderick W Smith. This book talked about Linux being one of the most reliable, secure and worry-free operating systems available and embedded systems across the globe. According to Gale eBooks “Since its inception in 1991, it has attracted widespread attention because of its compatibility with different platforms, and also because Linux is considered by many users to be faster, more robust, and more economical compared to other operating systems.” [2]. The Linux operating system for computers was developed by a Swedish computer scientist. Torvalds began developing this system while a university student in Finland, and it is now freely available over the Internet. A Software developer Torvalds not only made one of the most widely supported operating systems. But also gave freedom to study how the program works and freedom to run the program, for any purpose.
    [Context]:
    While Linux has been useful for over two decades, and how It is built in a variety of ways. Technology Researchers, Suchakrapani Datt Sharma, D.N Sonawane, Tanushri Chakravorty, Tushar Patil wrote in an article, the e-Learning era has brought in new ways of influencing education. According to this novel, “An E-learning system is networked, which makes it capable of instant updating, storage/retrieval, distribution and sharing of instruction or information; It is delivered to the end-user via a computer using standard Internet technology; It focuses on the broadest view of learning solutions that go beyond the traditional paradigms of training” [3]. In another word, E-learning methodologies are essential for both student education and employee career progression in the workplace. Moving forward to a different journal by Vincent F. Scalfani, who talks about how he switched from Microsoft Windows to Linux and why he now prefers using Linux. One of the reasons is, “Some of the reasons reported for using Linux are that it is available at no cost, can be customized, runs well on older hardware, and offers an opportunity to support free and open-source communities, which may be more in-line with personal or institutional motivations and philosophies” [4]. As I mentioned earlier, Linux is an open-source operating system which is software. And one of the most dependable, secure, and there’s no cost to enter… as in, it’s free. Linux can be installed on as many computers as you want without having to pay for software or server licensing.
    Working Definition:
    All these definitions are similar in that they both illustrate how Linux can be useful in a variety of ways. According to definitions dating back to the 1991 and more current definitions. Linux is an operating system, just like Windows, iOS, and Mac OS. An operating system is a piece of software that controls all of the hardware resources on your computer or laptop. Simply explained, the operating system is in charge of coordinating the connection between your program and your hardware. The software would not work without the operating system (OS). Why Linux? To respond to that question, Linux has evolved into one of the world’s most dependable computer ecosystems. When you combine that dependability with the fact that there is no fee of entry, you have the appropriate desktop platform.

    Reference

    [1] “Linux,” in Oxford English Dictionary. 3rd ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press, Dec, 2009, def. 1. [Online]. Available: https://www-oed com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/Entry/251510?redirectedFrom=linux

    [2] L. Fundukian. “Gale Encyclopedia of E-Commerce,” L. Fundukian, Ed. Gale, a Cengage Company, 2012. Available: Linux – Document – Gale eBooks (cuny.edu)

    [3] J. Lee, Y. Kim and S. Kim, “Design and Implementation of a Linux Phone Emulator Supporting Automated Application Testing,” 2008 Third International Conference on Convergence and Hybrid Information Technology, 2008, pp. 256-259, DOI: 10.1109/ICCIT.2008.84.

    [4] S. Vincent, “Using the Linux operating system full-time: Tips and experiences from a subject liaison librarian,” College & Research Libraries News. Oct2021, Vol. 82 Issue 9, p428-431. 4p, Oct 2021. [Online]. DOI: 10.5860/crln.82.9.428

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13. TO: Prof. Ellis
    FROM: [ Shemei John]
    DATE: 9/29/2021
    SUBJECT: Expanded Definition Term: [Transhumanism] Full Rough Draft
    [Introduction]
    The intent of this memo is to introduce and inform technological Terminology we may or may not be fully familiar with. Terms such as “Networks”, “the internet of things”, “information technology”, “information sciences”, “data”, “transhumanism”, “hive-mind concept” and “Artificial Intelligence”. After careful consideration, I decided to research the term “Transhumanism”. Although, according to its popularity, the term isn’t mentioned a lot in today’s topics regarding technology, I do find it to be fascinating since it deals with the ideology that Mankind will transcend our current limitations through the use of technology. There are several sources I am considering for this topic to convey the definitions. So, I am going to include the definition of the word and its origins, throughout its history, from the Oxford etymology, and also from an excerpt taken from the books, “New bottles for new wine”, on Transhumanism, which discusses the ideology behind the term and its definition today.
    [Definitions]
    The Oxford English dictionary’s definition of transhumanism (n), is a deviation of the English word, transhuman, with the prefix “trans” meaning beyond or across the farther side of. The term was first used by Julian Huxley in his book “New bottles for new wine (1957)” in which he said, “The human species can..transcend itself..in its entirety, as humanity. We need a name for this belief. Perhaps transhumanism will serve: man remaining man, but transcending himself, by realizing new possibilities of and for his human nature.” [1] What Huxley is saying is, the belief in the will to surpass our current nature as humans is transhumanism. The term has surfaced occasionally in its etymology, being used again by Tom Bell, in his writings from “Extropy”, in which he says that the alternative to religion would be transhumanism. The term also has a definition more relevant the modernity of time.

    [Context]
    Over the course of its history from when it was first coined to current times, the word transhumanism has variated into slight nuances. Huxley’s definition of transhumanism is the belief that humankind will transcend our nature, but he was speaking specifically about the beliefs. He believed that either synchronously, or not, humans will consciously give rise to this belief in order to evolve. Today the word has slightly a different definition which includes some addition to it. [2] The definition today is familiarly used in science fiction. So, the current definition of the 21st century would be that, transhumanism is the belief that one day humankind with transcend our current limitations, ultimately achieving immortality, by use of science and technology.
    I checked in the Oxford dictionary of science-fiction for some comparison. The word transhuman references with two other words, “cyborg” and “posthuman”. The definition of a transhuman according to the science fiction definition, [3]“someone whose body or mind has been transformed (e.g. by cyborgization or genetic engineering) so greatly that they are no longer considered human, especially one who now possesses greater abilities than normal humans.”
    The term is more relevant today since we marvel at our current level of technology. This definition is what most of us are familiar with. We put a lot of our faith in technology. It has embedded its way into our lives. As I stated earlier, trans, the prefix, means beyond or across the farther side of, however, the suffix ‘ism’, usually accompany a verb, and means or implied an action that was or is to be performed, or a state of being, (Like Buddhism or Plagiarism). This definition is on par with current events.
    Professor M. Battle-Fisher, in his article, “Transhuman, posthuman and complex humanness in the 21st century”, defines Transhumanism as the philosophy that you are already posthuman once you remove the current limitations of the current human being, “…the present state of our bodies.” Any kind of capacity that can enhance our abilities beyond our current state of flesh is transhumanism. He also states in the article that the only way to do that on the horizon is through the use of technology.

    [1] Julian Huxley, New Bottles for New wine (page 17), Harper and Brothers publishing, 1957

    [2] C. Christopher Hook, Transhumanism and Posthumanism, Encyclopedia of Bioethics(Vol. 5. 3rd ed.) Page 2517, Gale Publishing, 2004
    [3][Oxford reference] Jeff Prucher, The Oxford Dictionary of Science Fiction, (Version 2007),
    Oxford University Press, published 2006
    [4] M. Battle-Fisher, Transhuman, posthuman and complex humanness in the 21st century, Science Direct, library.citytech.cuny.edu, 25 March 2019
    [5]”Transhumanism,” in Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press, Oct 6, def. 1. [Online]. Available: https://www.oed.com

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14. TO: Prof. Ellis
    FROM: Sebastian Vela
    DATE: 10/14/2021
    SUBJECT: Expanded Definition Term: Branching

    Introduction
    The purpose of this document is to discuss the expanded definition of the term branching. I chose the terms “branch” and “branching” because they are used very commonly in programming. Any code that a programmer writes will include some form of branching to another set of instructions, rather than go through all of the instructions in the program one by one. The branches are conditional: If a user performs an action (let’s call this Action A), the program will jump (or branch) to the action corresponding to Action A. If the user performs a different action (Action B), the program will jump to the branch corresponding to Action B, and so on.
    Definitions
    Our current version of the word “branch” helms its origins from the Latin word “branca”, or paw, referring to parts of the anatomy that divide from the larger animal, such as the claws of a tiger. This term was later borrowed by the Anglo-French as “branche”, but now more often used to refer to the limbs of a tree. Circa 1250-1300, the word was adopted by the Middle English language as “branche”, “braunche”, and “bronche”, now referring to any parts of something that divides like the branches of a tree. Branching is a very simple concept and can be described to even a child. The University of Utah states that branching is “when an Algorithm makes a choice to do one of two (or more things) this is called branching. The most common programming “statement” used to branch is the IF statement.” [1] Techopedia.com gives a more descriptive and in-depth definition as to what branching is “A branch in a computer program is an instruction that tells a computer to begin executing different instructions rather than simply executing the instructions in order. In high-level languages, these are typically referred to as flow control procedures and are built into the language. In assembly programming, branch instructions are built into a CPU.” [2] Techopedia also states the different statements that are used in order to implement a branch such as IF statements, for loops, while loops and switch statements.
    Context
    Branching can be used differently depending on the industry for example in business branching is the act of creating a smaller office that is separate from a company’s headquarters. Investopedia description of how a branch office works states “Branch offices are useful in that they allow many of the client-specific administrative considerations to be conducted closest to clients. For example, Starbucks has branch offices to better serve its retail stores’ district managers in a more cost-effective manner. They can also cater to and be more informed about the needs of specific locations, rolling out location-specific items or adjusting staff.” [3] The uses of the term “branch” in programming and its use in business are very different. The meaning is more commonly associated with branches in business, so it would cause confusion for people who are not programmers to hear it used in a different context. Someone who is curious about programming would encounter the term “branch” and “branching” very often, as programs almost always have methods and condition-based actions that are described in the code and related documentation.
    Working definition
    Based on the definitions of branching and its context related to working in CST I would best summarize a branch as an instruction based on a decision, or a reaction based on a condition where the conditions are a series of tests that a program goes through. Each test looks for some kind of indication, whether it is a keyword, phrase, number, or boolean statement. The reaction, or branch, is the instruction that the program follows when the appropriate conditions are met. If the appropriate conditions are not met, the program goes into a different branch, and follows a different set of instructions until the conditions are finally met.
    References
    [1] H. J. de S. Germain, “Branching,” Programming – Branching. [Online]. Available: https://www.cs.utah.edu/~germain/PPS/Topics/branching.html
    [2] Techopedia, “What is a branch? – definition from Techopedia,” Techopedia.com, 21-Sep-2016. [Online]. Available: https://www.techopedia.com/definition/18058/branch.
    [3] W. Kenton, “How branch offices work,” Investopedia, 21-Sep-2021. [Online]. Available: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/branch-office.asp.

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15. To: Prof. Ellis
    From: Hamzat Olowu
    Date: 10/12/2021
    Subject: Expanded Definition Term: Data Structure
    Introduction
    The objective of this document is to accentuate one of the most important term for programmers and software engineers. This term is Data Structures, the focus of this paper will be on the etymology of the term, then it will discuss the term and its uses in different backgrounds under computer science. This paper will also focus on the way the term is used depending on the context of the articles or books in which the term has been used. The official definitions of the term will be provided first, term’s etymology will be provided after which the context of the words will be discussed. At the end another definition will be provided which will come from understanding the term’s etymology, definition, and the context in which it’s used.

    Definition
    The term data structure according to the oxford English dictionary means “Computing the form in which a collection of data is organized, typically allowing for efficient access or manipulation of the data.” [1] According to this definition we know this term is coined for the computer science field, which makes this a unique term. If we look at the term’s etymology, the term was first used in 1960 in a sentence from the IRE Transactions on Space Electronics and Telemetry which states “The decoding program also includes provision for recognizing the time and data structure when partially camouflaged by noise.” [1] The sentence provides a better understanding of the term and shows that the term is being used in a computer science environment. The second time the term was used officially was in 1973 in a book called Introduction to computer science which was what set the standard for later uses of the word. Data structure can also be defined as “The logical or mathematical model of a particular organization of data.” [2] This definition is essentially the same as the first definition but it’s defining the term based on logic and math. For computer science students the term data structure is made known from either a mathematics course or computer science course called data structures and algorithm. This shows how deeply entrenched in computer science the term is, other definitions for this term still haven’t escaped from the scope of computer science. According to a definition from the Britannica encyclopedia, data structure is a “way in which data are stored for efficient search and retrieval.” [3] The definition from the oxford English dictionary and the Britannica encyclopedia both have different wordings but the same meaning, one says, “efficient access” and the other says “efficient search and retrieval” which attest to the same meaning, further corroborating the fact that the term has the same meaning across different definitions, and it is most suitable to be used in a computer science environment.

    Context
    Perceiving the essence of the term entails more than just the definition of the term. The context of in which the word or term is used needs to be discussed to come to any kind of conclusion about the term. For this document, the focus is on data structures and in what context it is used. Based on what has been discussed in the previous paragraph data structure is a term that is mainly used in computer science settings, so the context of the word would hold a fair amount of computer science mixed within. This is seen in the book called Python Data Structures and Algorithms which states “A good understanding of data structures and algorithms cannot be overemphasized. It is an important arsenal to have in being able to understand new problems and find elegant solutions to them.” [4, P.1] The book was stating the importance data structures and its counterpart which is algorithm. The book teaches the different types of data structures and algorithms which uses them using a programming language called python. The term data structure in this book is an important concept that is being taught to students interested in computer science. Looking at how the term is being used in context from a different type of source might explain more about the term itself. A different type of source is an article and the one that was chosen for the sake of this writing is by Rhoda M. Gilinsky, a freelance writer who wrote about Teachers Learning Computer Methods: “Students with previous academic preparation in computer science or who want supplementary preparation can also select from more advanced courses, such as Information Structures and Algorithms, Computer Architecture and Programming Languages.” [5] The use of the term here is different as we did not detect the term data structure in the sentence instead term information structure was spotted. In this context, information structure is replacing data structure as data and information can be used interchangeably. The usage of the term in both contexts truly demonstrates the interpretation of the term data structure.

    Working Definition
    After the juxtaposition of the term’s usage in different context, another definition can be derived from the information provided in the last two paragraphs. Using this knowledge data structure can be defined as any layout information/data is stored. Whilst the definition is in essence equivalent to the ones provided by the sources of this document, it is less specialized. The difference between this definition and the others is that it more generalized.

    References
    [1] “Data Structures,” in Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press, Mar. 2012, data n, c2. [Online]. Available: https://www.oed.com
    [2] R. S. N. and S. P. Suman, “The Role of Data Structures in Multiple Disciplines of Computer Science A Review,” The Role of Data Structures in Multiple Disciplines of Computer Science A Review – IJSER Journal Publication, Jul-2013. [Online]. Available: https://www.ijser.org/researchpaper/The-Role-of-Data-Structures-in-Multiple-Disciplines-of-Computer-Science-A-Review.pdf
    [3] “Data structure.” In Britannica Academic Encyclopædia, 12 Apr. 2017, [Online]. Available: academic-eb-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/levels/collegiate/article/data-structure/472173
    [4] B. Baka, Python data structures and algorithms: Improve the performance and speed of your applications. Birmingham, UK: Packt Publishing Limited, 2017. [Online]. Available: ProQuest Ebook Central.
    [5] R. M. Gilinsky, “TEACHERS LEARNING COMPUTER METHODS,” The New York Times, Jun. 3, 1984. [Online]. Available: https://www.nytimes.com/1984/06/03/nyregion/teachers-learning-computer-methods.html?searchResultPosition=5

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16. To: Professor Ellis
    From: Edwin Ascencio
    Date: 10/13/21
    Subject: Expanded Definition of Aerospace and Aeronautical, First Half, Rough Draft

    Introduction

    The purpose of this memo is to expand and elaborate the two terms Aerospace and Aeronautical and how these terms play a major role in the Aviation field. Aircrafts are what allows use to travel to different countries, island, and continents. These terms are what allowed society to research and develop our modern aircrafts. Aviation has come a long way since it was explored by the Wright brothers and eventually it was divided into two more in-depth fields. These field allowed engineers to explore new possible heights and reach places we were not able to reach before. With Aerospace and Aeronautical we were able to make the journey to travel to space and this allowed us to advance our knowledge of science. I will discuss the origins of the two terms and the importance of the term. The resources I will be unitizing are credible dictionaries and research paper created by people who have studied in the Aviation field. After gathering all the required information, I will sort the information into four categories: Definition/Etymology, Context, and Working Definition. All reference will be included towards the end.

    Definition/Etymology

    The aviation field could be divided into many professions but without Aerospace and Aeronautical we would not have aircraft we have today. As an aircraft mechanic I can see aircrafts that have unique designs. The uniqueness comes from Aerospace and how manufactures designed the aircraft to perform certain tasks. From my understanding Aerospace is an industry that designs and manufacture unique airplanes. Some aircrafts that the industry designs are not limited to aircraft that allows us to travel to different regions around the world, they also design aircraft that can cruise between the boundary of Earth and Space. According to Dictionary, it says, “the industry concerned with the design and manufacture of aircraft, rockets, spacecraft., that operate in atmosphere”.[3] The given definition gives use an understanding on what aerospace focus on. As I mention before aerospace is not limited by aircraft that allows us to travel to different regions, aerospace allows us to travel to different atmosphere and space. According to Merriam-Webster, aerospace is “the manufacture of such vehicles or to travel in aerospace”.[4] The secondary definition correlates to the first definitions and shows that aircrafts travel could also travel outside the boundaries of Earth or within the Earth.

    Another term that corresponds with Aviation is Aeronautical. According to Merriam-Webster, Aeronautical is “a science dealing with the operation of aircraft”.[2] There are several forces and principles that factor in when an aircraft or rocket is flying. These considerations are implemented via aerospace because aerospace oversees designing aircraft that will consider the several factors and principle. Both aerospace and aeronautical play a major role by producing aircraft that can perform certain action. Another definition from Collins is that aeronautical “means involving or relating to the design and construction of airplanes”. [5] Both definition gives a similar definition as they both relate to creating an aircraft that can perform certain task and focus on the operation of the aircraft.

    Context

    When comparing the two definitions for Aerospace we can see that both definitions share a common statement and that is the word manufacture. Aerospace creates different aircraft that can travel to different location or factor forces. The first definition states that an industry designs and manufacture aircrafts to perform in different circumstances. The second definition states it manufactures vehicles to travel in aerospace. Each definition refers to the term, design and manufacture. Aircraft could vary from an RC Drone to a Rocket ship. Today we have aircraft that allows use to travel long distance but in short altitude (helicopter), we have aircraft that allows us to travel overseas (commercial aircrafts), and we have aircraft that allow use to explore space (rockets). These are some examples of what the industry have demanded us to create, aircraft with unique design and performance.

    With Aeronautical both definition talk about the operation of aircraft. When creating aircraft engineers ask, “what should this aircraft do?”. This question is what gave use a variety on aircraft. One variety that was made was the SR-71. It was an aircraft capable of traveling 200mph and travel around between the boundaries of Earth and Space. The aircraft was made of special material and deicing system to prevent the aircraft from freezing at high altitude. With Aerospace designing the aircraft, careful consideration was inserted and eventually created the SR-71. Aeronautical studied the science of high altitude and aerospace designed an aircraft to combat the forces existing at high altitude.

    Working Definitions

    Currently NASP (National Aero Space Plane) has created a aircraft, the X-30and that aircraft could achieve speeds of Mach 25 which is faster than regular aircraft. NASP uses a combination of both aerospace and aeronautical to create the XC-30. According to Barthelemy, “XC-30 will be fabricated from a combination of highly advance materials”. [1]. Here we see that at a certain speed friction will start to form and heat the aircraft greatly. To avoid structure damages, special material is used in the aircraft construction to prevent overheating. Aeronautical will gather data and determine what material will be suited for this kind of stress and aerospace will design and manufacture an aircraft base on the material that was gather from research. We can see how both terms play a role in today’s aircraft.

    Reference

    [1] R. Barthelemy, “Recent progress in the National Aerospace Plane program,” in IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine, vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 3-12, May 1989, doi: 10.1109/62.31806.
    [2] “Aeronautics definition & meaning,” Merriam-Webster. [Online]. Available: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aeronautics. [Accessed: 12-Dec-2021].
    [3] “Aerospace definition & meaning,” Dictionary.com. [Online]. Available: https://www.dictionary.com/browse/aerospace. [Accessed: 12-Dec-2021].
    [4] “Aerospace definition & meaning,” Merriam-Webster. [Online]. Available: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aerospace. [Accessed: 12-Dec-2021].
    [5] “Aeronautical definition and meaning: Collins english dictionary,” Aeronautical definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary. [Online]. Available: https://www.collinsdictionary.com/us/dictionary/english/aeronautical. [Accessed: 12-Dec-2021].

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