Adewale Adeyemi’s Expanded Definition of Immunology

TO: Prof. Jason Ellis

FROM: Adewale R. Adeyemi

DATE: 10/08/2020

SUBJECT: Expanded Definition of immunology

Introduction

The purpose of this document is to write expanded definition on the term immunology which is a branch of biomedicine that deals with the structure and function of the immune system. The term immunology will be scarcely mention in this writing rather immune system will be made mention of a lot as immunology shines a brighter light on what compromises the immune system, its structure, how it works and cells that are essential to the immune system.

The topics covered in this paper will include the definition and structure of the immune system, types of immunity which is innate and adaptive, and immunopathology’s like autoimmunity.

Definitions

“The immune system refers to a collection of cells and proteins that function to protect the skin, respiratory passages, intestinal tract and other areas from foreign antigens, such as microbes (organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and parasites), viruses, cancer cells, and toxins.”( Warrington et al, 2011, p.1).  This means the immune system is a complex network of organs tissue and substances they make which helps the body fight infections and diseases.

“The immune system is a distinct organ in vertebrates, specialized to defend against invading infections or poisons in order to preserve the integrity of the organism.” (Stefan Offermanns, 2008, p.482). Here the immune system is a collection of organs in the vertebrates which is designed to fight against infections and diseases. Both definitions are both related in the sense that, tit could be a collection of cells or a distinct organ in the body but they both fight against infections and diseases.

The innate immune response has no immunologic memory and, therefore, it is unable to recognize or “memorize” the same pathogen should the body be exposed to it in the future (Marshall et al, 2018, p.1). This means innate immune response lacks the ability to quicky and specifically recognize a virus the body as encountered before and immediately initiate a corresponding response.

Adaptive immunity, on the other hand, is antigen-dependent and antigen-specific and, therefore, involves a lag time between exposure to the antigen and maximal response. (Marshall et al, 2018, p.1). In the case of adaptive immunity, it depends on a toxin or other foreign substance which induces an immune response in the body, it then uses immunological memory to learn about the threat and enhance the immune response accordingly. Both types of immunity are related in the sense that they both act together to defend the body against infections and diseases while they both differ with the presence of immunological memory in adaptive and inmate possess no immunological memory. The immunological memory simply quickly and specifically recognizes an antigen that the body has previously encountered and initiate a corresponding immune response.

Context

“First up, supercharging your immune system with specific foods, like garlic and honey, is an old debunked idea. “Simply put, you cannot ‘boost’ your immune system through diet, and no specific food or supplement will prevent you catching COVID-19/Coronavirus,” said the British Dietetic Association in a statement.” (Wong J, 2020, p.23). Put differently consuming food like garlic or honey or going on a diet will not boost the immune system nor prevent the body from contracting a deadly virus.

“What we do know is that some nutrients are essential to a healthy immune system, such as vitamin C, zinc and selenium. Certain dietary patterns, such as eating plenty of fruit, vegetables and wholegrains, may help reduce the inflammation that can contribute to complications in covid-19.” (Wong J, 2020, p.23). This implies consuming nutrients that are essential to the body like Vitamin C, Vitamin D or Zinc can help the body when its in the process of fighting these deadly viruses and can help reduce complications. 

Working Definition

I believe a breakthrough research in decoding how the human immune system prevents and controls disease is essential. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and machine learning are something in my field that I feel will be critical to this breakthrough. As we know, the immune system is a complex network of cells and proteins that function to protect the skin, respiratory passages, intestinal tract, and other areas from foreign antigens and decoding it would be paramount to understanding how it fights illness and diseases. Utilizing Artificial Intelligence (AI) and machine learning can help better process and analyze the immune system and help find better ways to fight disease everywhere as data can be processed a billion times faster.

References

Marshall, J. S., Warrington, R., Watson, W., & Kim, H. L. (2018). An introduction to immunology and immunopathology. Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology, 14(1), N.PAG. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13223-018-0278-1

Warrington, R., Watson, W., Kim, H. L., & Antonetti, F. R. (2011). An introduction to immunology and immunopathology. Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology, 7(S1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1710-1492-7-S1-S1

Wong, J. (2020). Beware the corona diet. New Scientist, 246(3286), 23.

Offermans, S., Rosenthal, W. (2008). Encyclopedia of Molecular Pharmacology (2 volume set) (2^nd ed. 2008 ed.) Springer.

To: Professor Jason Ellis

From: Alvin Ferreira

Date: 10/20/20

Subject: Expanded definition of Honeypot

Introduction

When it relates to information technology and cybersecurity, this paper includes an expanded description of the word honeypot. I address several meanings of the word in this paper, several uses of the term in context, and finally, provide a working definition of the term. The document will inform the reader how important and necessary honeypot is. Furthermore, the document will include the benefits of honeypot in corporations and my overall thoughts.

Definition

      Honeypot provide fake information to intruders to watch their behavior. The authors Miguel A. Leguizamon-Paez, Maria A. Bonilla-Diaz, and Camilo A. Leon-Cuervo (2020) quoted “Honeypots in their most basic form are fake information servers, strategically positioned in a test network, which are fed with false information that is disguised as files of a confidential nature. In turn, these servers are initially configured in such a way that it is difficult, but not impossible, to be penetrated by a computer attacker, deliberately exposing them and making them highly attractive to a target hacker”. “The quote basically describes how honeypot is constructed to feed information that are not accurate to intruders.  Allowing the person controlling the honeypot to evaluate the intruder’s behavior

     Honeypot could be applied to benefit the companies’ strength. The authors Muhammet Baykara and Resul Das quoted “Honeypot systems are security tools that have recently been used in vulnerable information systems. They gain their security advantage as they are being attackable. These honeypot systems simulate real systems such as web, application, and database servers used in information systems, and they are trapping systems for attacker”. The quote states in small terms how honeypot looks for certain vulnerability within the system. The article discusses when literature finding are analyzed, it is possible to find three specific mechanisms related to the placement of honeypot schemes. In specific, honeypot networks can be located on the Local Area Network, the telephone and the Demilitarized Zone. There are benefits and pitfalls of any of these placement conditions. Depending on where they are located, honeypots are structured in forms and shapes that do not endanger network protection.   

Are Honeypot reliable in all businesses? The authors Anand Gupta, S.K.Gupta, IshaManu Ganesh, Pankhuri Gupta, Vikram Goyal and Sangeeta Sabharwal  cited “Though honeypot technology is not widely accepted, we feel it can be successful in certain environments. This leads to a new kind of honeypot called context dependent honeypot based on databases (S.K. Gupta et al., 2008). It is useful in a situation where there is a need to lure and quietly observe the actions of suspected masqueraders (for privacy violation). Such a pre-event scenario, where we act on the basis of apriori knowledge, before the violation actually occurs, has not yet been explored”. So by the article standards in a case where there is a need to lure and secretly monitor the behavior of accused masqueraders, it is beneficial. Such a pre-event situation has not yet been discussed; in which one behave on the basis of apriori information before the breach eventually happens.

The difference between the three article presented above is as followed; the first article discusses how false information is shared on honeypot to study behavior. The second article examines the strength of Honeypot in general. Lastly in the third article it explains if all corporations should rely in honeypot. The similarities between all quotes are they all described honeypot as being use to deceive an intruder and study their behavior.

Context

      The authors Anand Gupta, S.K.Gupta, IshaManu Ganesh, Pankhuri Gupta, Vikram Goyal and Sangeeta Sabharwal  quoted “Therefore, it is necessary to protect all types of information, in order to use it completely and at the same time, it can be protected and kept safe against any possible eventualities involving loss, distortion and/or use by unwanted entities.” The quote means all forms of information must be secured inorder to be fully used and, at the same time, secure and safeguarded against potential eventualities including misuse, manipulation and/or usage by unauthorized individuals.

     The authors  Muhammet Baykara and Resul Das stated “Information security has been one of the most important areas of research in the world of information in recent years. Many tools or software are used in computer network systems to provide corporate or personal information security”.The statement means digital security has been one of the most notable fields of study in the information sector. There are software being used in computer network systems for companies, or personal information protections.

     The author John Clay stated“Microsoft announced vulnerability CVE-2020-0601 and has already released a patch to protect against any exploits stemming from the vulnerability. Understanding how difficult it can be to patch systems in a timely manner, Trend Micro created a valuable tool that will test endpoints to determine if they have been patched against this latest threat or if they are still vulnerable”. The quote explains how Microsoft has confirmed the CVE-2020-0601 vulnerability and has already released a fix to protect against vulnerabilities triggered by the vulnerability. Trend Micro has built a helpful method that can monitor endpoints to assess if they have been patched against this new vulnerability or whether they are already vulnerable, recognizing how difficult it can be to repair devices in a timely way.

All the quotes above relate to each other. They all pertain to the function of honeypot. In this case, the honeypot normally finds out vulnerability and fixes the errors by studying intruders behavior.

In conclusion, through all the different articles obtained honeypot carried the same structure. Honeypot is supposed to deceive intruders and protect valuable information. So, are honeypot important? In my opinion, they are. Honeypot helps corporations notice their strength and weaknesses to keep their important information protected. In my career, I.T. operations. I will be attending Administrative protocols and hardware and software assistance. My responsibilities include technology management and quality assurance, as well as infrastructure maintenance and ensuring that finished goods fulfill both the demands and requirements of the customers.

Reference

Anand Gupta, S.K. Gupta, IshaManu Ganesh, Pankhuri Gupta, Vikram Goyal, & Sangeeta Sabharwal. (2010) Opaqueness Characteristic of a Context Honeypot System. Information Security Journal: A Global Perspective.vol.19 Issue 3, p142-152. 11p.
http://web.b.ebscohost.com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/ehost/detail/detail?vid=21&sid=b110f4ca-b64a-4c7a-aa3b-f7491114517c%40pdc-v-sessmgr01&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#db=a9h&AN=51253514

Miguel A. Leguizamon-Paez, Maria A. Bonilla-Diaz, & Camilo A. Leon-Cuervo (2020). Analysis of computer attacks through Honeypots in the District University Francisco Jose de caldas.Ingenieria y Competitvidad,jul2020, Vol.22 Issue 2, p1-13. 13p.
http://web.b.ebscohost.com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/ehost/detail/detail?vid=15&sid=b110f4ca-b64a-4c7a-aa3b-f7491114517c%40pdc-v-sessmgr01&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#AN=143694090&db=a9h

 John Clay. (2020, January 24). Trend Micro Creates Factory Honeypot to Trap Attackers. Retrieved October 07, 2020, from https://www.trendmicro.com/en_us/research/20/a/this-week-in-security-news-trend-micro-creates-factory-honeypot-to-trap-malicious-attackers-and-microsoft-leaves-250m-customer-service-records-open-to-the-web.html

Muhammet Baykara & Resul Das (2019)SoftSwitch: a centralized honeypot-based security approach using software-defined switching for secure management of VLAN networks.Turkish Journal of Electrical Engineering & Computer Sciences. Vol.27 Issue 5, pg 3309-3325. 17p. http://web.b.ebscohost.com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/ehost/detail/detail?vid=42&sid=4e66af52-c8d3-46b8-b3f9-615720b8f216%40pdc-v-sessmgr03&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#db=a9h&AN=138875578

Rouse, M. (2019, November 22). What is IT Operations and Why is it Important? Retrieved October 21, 2020, from https://searchitoperations.techtarget.com/definition/IT-operations

TO: Professor Ellis

FROM: Jinquan Tan

DATE: 10/20/2020

SUBJECT: Expanded Definition of Application Programming Interface

Introduction

The purpose of this document is giving the definition of API(Application programming interface).I will describe the definitions and context of API in the next two paragraphs.

Definition

“An Application Programming Interface (API) is a set of functionalities provided by a third-party component (e.g., library and framework) that is made available to software developers. APIs are extremely popular as they promote reuse of existing software systems (Johnson and Foote 1988)”(Sawant,2016,p.1349).This definition said API set of functionalities provided by a third-party component that is made available to software developers. APIs and is popular since the late 19 century.“The HITRAN Application Programming Interface (HAPI, [15,16]) represents a code library that was made in an attempt to combine a unified data and code approach to work with the spectroscopic data”(Kochanov,2016,p.16).This definition said API of their own(The HITRAN) is code the combine together and work with data. “We describe the Materials Application Programming Interface (API), a simple, flexible and efficient interface to programmatically query and interact with the Materials Project database based on REpresentational State Transfer (REST) principles”(Ong,2015,p.210). This definition said API is a simple interface that interacts with the database.Of all these definitions the similarity between them are they all said is component interaction. And the differences between them are they all have their own different API.

Context

“More than 50 companies, including I.B.M., Hewlett-Packard and Sun Microsystems, will announce tomorrow the single specification for application programming interfaces, or A.P.I.’s, which link a software operating system to applications like spreadsheet, data base and graphics programs. An operating system is the set of basic internal commands that enable a computer to function”(Lohr,1993,p.4).New York Time writer said that application programming interfaces were used by more than 50 companies which use applications like spreadsheet, data base and graphics programs. “In fact, there are examples of companies sharing and collaborating all over the internet, in order to be able to compete. For example, Facebook, Twitter and LinkedIn have opened up their platforms with APIs (application programming interfaces)”(Leboff,2011,p.151).This quote saying application programming interfaces enables others to build online businesses and applications that integrate with these companies. This approach helps to keep these social networks relevant, as they are constantly able to offer their users new tools and functionality through third parties. It also helps them to widen their reach, as every business that chooses to integrate with them becomes a de facto referral and free piece of marketing. “application programming interface  n. Computing a set of routines, protocols, and tools designed to allow the development of applications that can utilize or operate in conjunction with a given item of software, set of data, website, etc.; abbreviated API.” The Oxford dictionary giving the definition of application programming interface said that is something designed to allow the development of applications that can utilize or operate in conjunction.

Working Definition

Based on the definitions that I quoted and discussed, and the contextual uses of the term that I quoted and discussed, application programming interfaces are very related to my career major since I’m majoring in Computer Science Technology- Software development. My own definition of application programming interface is, API is a computing interface for interactions between multiple software intermediaries.

References

“application, n.”. OED Online. September 2020. Oxford University Press. https://www-oed-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/Entry/9705?redirectedFrom=application+programming+interface (accessed October 19, 2020).

Kochanov, R., Gordon, I., Rothman, L., Wcisło, P., Hill, C., & Wilzewski, J. (2016). HITRAN Application Programming Interface (HAPI): A comprehensive approach to working with spectroscopic data. Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy & Radiative Transfer, 177, 15–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jqsrt.2016.03.005

Leboff, G. (2011). Controlling to Sharing. In Sticky Marketing: Why everything in marketing has changed and what to do about it (pp. 145-160). Kogan Page. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX2387000023/GVRL?u=cuny_nytc&sid=GVRL&xid=979c9472

Lohr, S. (1993, August 31). Standard Set For Unix Interface. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/31/business/company-news-standard-set-for-unix-interface.html?searchResultPosition=1. 

Ong, S., Cholia, S., Jain, A., Brafman, M., Gunter, D., Ceder, G., & Persson, K. (2015). The Materials Application Programming Interface (API): A simple, flexible and efficient API for materials data based on REpresentational State Transfer (REST) principles. Computational Materials Science, 97(C), 209–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.commatsci.2014.10.037

Sawant, A., & Bacchelli, A. (2016). fine-GRAPE: fine-grained APi usage extractor – an approach and dataset to investigate API usage. Empirical Software Engineering : an International Journal, 22(3), 1348–1371. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10664-016-9444-6

TO: Prof. Jason Ellis

FROM: Mahim Pritom

DATE: October 21st, 2020

SUBJECT: Expanded Definition of Artificial Intelligence

Introduction

The purpose of this 750-1000 Word Expanded Definition is to explore the definition of the term “Artificial Intelligence” which is a revolutionary invention of science in modern-day technology. I will be defining the term “Artificial Intelligence” in relation to machine learning and contextually how it operates in the different sections of the modern technology field. 

In this project, I will introduce Artificial Intelligence following several defining quotations from verified sources where I will discuss and compare those definitions from the authors. Next, I will discuss several quotations from a variety of sources where Artificial Intelligence is used in context. Finally, I will provide my own working definition of Artificial Intelligence after discussing all those quotations.

Definitions

Author  J. F. SMOLKO in the article “ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE” defines AI as, “Artificial intelligence (AI) is that division of science, particularly of computer science, which attempts to emulate and extend with programmed and fabricated elements the cognitive and affective functions of animals and human beings.”(Smolko, 2003, p.765). Author SMOLKO tries to define Artificial Intelligence as the emulation of cognitive and affective functions that animals and we, humans perform daily. However, he emphasized computer science since machines will think and perform as the human mind thinks by using algorithms which is programmable by AI. In another article “BUSINESS FINANCE”, authors  Mark Jon Snyder and Lisa Gueldenzoph Snyder define AI as, “Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the branch of computer science and engineering devoted to the creation of intelligent machines and the software to run them. This process is “artificial” because once it is programmed into the machine, it occurs without human intervention.”(Snyder et al., 2014, p.31). Comparing the two definitions, all of the authors mention computer science and programmable algorithms that machines will learn to think like human minds also known as Artificial Intelligence. The author from the first definition didn’t mention human intervention whereas the authors of the second definition did which means when machines adopt programmable AI, they can operate and run the software simultaneously without human interventions.

Context

In a New York Times article “After the Pandemic, a Revolution in Education and Work Awaits” by  Thomas L. Friedman in an interview with Ravi Kumar, Artificial Intelligence is described as an automated system. “Now so many more people can play at that because you no longer need to know how to code to generate new software programs. Thanks to artificial intelligence, there is now “no-code software.’’ You just instruct the software to design some code for the application that you’ve imagined or need and, presto, it will spit it out.”(Friedman, 2020). Basically, the author gathered information about how AI is making our lives easier in the job sectors where AI will automate generate code according to the instruction given by the user whereas before we had to write all the codes from the scratch and as a human being, it takes up a lot of time to complete an application to run properly. In a blogpost “AI is Shaping the Future of Appointment Scheduling” posted by Ryan Williamson explains the importance of  AI in scheduling appointments. “AI-driven interface between the customer and the company can schedule appointments without human intervention to enable sending out confirmation emails, digital directions, etc. to help deliver a top-notch experience every time.”(Williamson, 2020). Ryan emphasizes an AI-driven interface where customers can schedule an appointment, collect basic pieces of information such as FAQ instead of calling the customer service, waiting in line, and manually schedule an appointment which is beneficial for both business and customers. Since an AI-driven interface can operate multiple tasks at the same time, the company can reduce labor and invest more in technology. In a CBS NEWS article “Facebook touts the use of artificial intelligence to help detect harmful content and misinformation” by Musadiq Bidar, he explains how Facebook is using AI to detect posts that violate the company’s policies and regulations. “Confronted with an onslaught of social media posts filled with misinformation and harmful content, Facebook said Tuesday it has begun to rely on artificial intelligence to boost its efforts to evaluate whether posts violate its policies and should be labeled or removed.”(Bidar, 2020). Billions of people use Facebook every day but not everyone follows the guidelines and policies. It is not possible for Facebook employees to manually detect and take down all those posts. Therefore, Facebook is using AI that can intelligently detect the violating posts and can track the devices from where the posts have been published all thanks to the programmable algorithms in combination with machine learning. Human eyes can make mistakes but we cannot escape with violations through the eyes of AI.

Working Definition

From the above discussions, I think Artificial Intelligence is the counterfeit of the human mind which is programmable to apply as an algorithm into the machines to operate and run software without human interruption. AI is very important in my major(software development) since developers use the help of AI to generate automated codes that will provide time to the developers in the backend to debug and test the application while the frontend developers can modify those automated codes according to the requirements without starting from the scratch.

References

Bidar, M. (2020, August 12). Facebook touts use of artificial intelligence to help detect harmful content and misinformation. CBS News. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/facebook-artificial-intelligence-harmful-content-misinformation/. 

Friedman, T. L. (2020, October 20). After the Pandemic, a Revolution in Education and Work Awaits. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/20/opinion/covid-education-work.html?searchResultPosition=1. 

Williamson, R. (2020, October 6). AI is Shaping the Future of Appointment Scheduling. Data Science Central. https://www.datasciencecentral.com/profiles/blogs/ai-is-shaping-the-future-of-appointment-scheduling. 

SMOLKO, J. F. (2003). Artificial Intelligence. In New Catholic Encyclopedia (2nd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 765-766). Gale. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3407700832/GVRL?u=cuny_nytc&sid=GVRL&xid=bb763593

Snyder, M. J., & Snyder, L. G. (2014). Artificial Intelligence. In Encyclopedia of Business and Finance (3rd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 31-35). Macmillan Reference USA. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3727500026/GVRL?u=cuny_nytc&sid=GVRL&xid=fa612e0a

TO: Prof. Jason Ellis  

FROM: Michael Lin  

DATE: October 20, 2020   

SUBJECT: Expanded Definition of magnetic field  

Introduction

The purpose of this document is to expanded definition of a word that we might use in our future careers. The team that I will be defining in this document is “magnetic field” in this document I will first discuss the definition of “Magnetic Field” follow by some context discussion and finally I will provide a working definition of the term “Magnetic field”   

Definition

Here is some definition of the term “magnetic field.” FromA Dictionary of Electronics and Electrical Engineering (5 ed.) it states that magnetic field is: ” The space surrounding a magnet or a current-carrying conductor and containing magnetic flux.” in other word magnetic field is a force field that surround a magnet or things that carrying current and containing magnetic flux. Another definition for the term magnetic field is from Anderson, Michael. Electricity. 1st ed. New York: Britannica Educational Pub: “The region around a magnet in which magnetic forces can be seen is called a magnetic field. An electric current also creates a magnetic field”. This mean definition means that the area around a magnet that has magnetic force is call the magnetic field. The third definition for the term “Magnetic Field” are from Oxford English Dictionary, it state: “a field of the kind that is produced by a magnetic body (also by an electric current and a varying electric field) and acts on magnetic material.”  

 Base on the three definition that we get, we can see that the definition we got for the term “Magnetic Field” are similar in different area of study. It all defines as “a force field around a magnet or things that carry current near its surrounding. So we can conclude that the definition of the term “Magnetic field” won’t change if it was been use in different subject of the writing.  

Context

Here is some context that are using the term “magnetic field.” one article written by John Noble Wilford stated: “The other major planets in the Solar System, Jupiter, Saturn and the Earth, have strong magnetic fields that trap and accelerate interplanetary particles.” This sentence means that the major planet in our system all has magnetic field that pull the interplanetary particle toward them. Also, the term “magnetic Field” in this sentence meant the force field that surround the planet.  

The second article that also has the term “magnetic field” are written by K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, its state: “The earth’s magnetic field may help some animals navigate as they migrate. People have been using magnetic compasses for navigation since the fifteenth century. Because it has been so important for navigation, the magnetic field has been mapped all over the surface of the earth.” This sentence meant that some animal would use the earth’s magnetic field to help them to navigate their way around during the cold season as they need to migrate to a warmer place. Human also use magnetic field to help them navigate around the world during the fifteenth century by using magnetic compass.   

The third article that has the term “magnetic field” are written by James Gorman, its state:” Birds have to have a way to detect a magnetic field, and some part of the brain has to register that information; it seems likely that another part of the brain then compares the incoming information to a stored map.” This statement meant that part of the bird brain was able to absorb the earth’s magnetic field and use it as information and create a map in their brain to help the fly around the world. In this sentence, the term “magnetic field” was described as wave of current that flow around the Earth and was been pick up by birds.  

Working Definition

Based on the quote and the definition from different source, now we can conclude that “Magnetic Field” is a force field that around a magnet or thing that carrying current. Many things in this world has magnetic field around them, for example our planet Earth has magnetic field around it. Even the human has magnetic field, but it is much weaker than the others. Many electrical engineers need to have knowledge about magnetic field for their career, this is the basic of electrical engineering.    

Reference

1. Anderson, Michael. Electricity. 1st ed. New York: Britannica Educational Pub. In association with Rosen Educational Services, 2012. Print. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/citytech-ebooks/reader.action?docID=79  

2. (2020). magnetic field. In Gorse, C., Johnston, D., & Pritchard, M. (Eds.), A Dictionary of Construction, Surveying and Civil Engineering. : Oxford University Press. Retrieved 4 Oct. 2020, from https://www-oxfordreference-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/10.1093/acref/9780198832485.001.0001/acref-9780198832485-e-4228.  
3. Gorman, J. (2012, April 26). Study Sheds Light on How Birds Navigate by Magnetic Field. Retrieved October 20, 2020, from https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/27/science/study-sheds-light-on-how-pigeons-navigate-by-magnetic-field.html?searchResultPosition=9  
4. Magnetic Field. (2003). In K. L. Lerner & B. W. Lerner (Eds.), World of Earth Science (Vol. 2, p. 358). Gale. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3437800369/GVRL?u=cuny_nytc&sid=GVRL&xid=06073f2f  
5. Wilford, J. (1986, January 24). EVIDENCE OF MAGNETIC FIELD IS FOUND. Retrieved October 20, 2020, from https://www.nytimes.com/1986/01/24/us/evidence-of-magnetic-field-is-found.html  
6. “magnetic, adj. and n.”. OED Online. September 2020. Oxford University Press. https://www-oed-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/Entry/112270?redirectedFrom=magnetic+field+ (accessed October 04, 2020). 

TO: Professor. Jason Ellis

FROM: Brianna Persaud 

DATE: October 20, 2020 

SUBJECT: Expanded Definition of Bioengineering 

Introduction [Heading Level 2]

    The purpose of this document is to elucidate what bioengineering is. I will be discussing this term through multiple different sections. It will include several definitions of bioengineering, followed by several contextual discussions and end off with providing a working definition of the term.

 Definition [Heading Level 2]

  “Bioengineering, as a field of research and applications, brings to bear not only engineering on medicine and biological organisms, but also a knowledge of biology on engineering designs. This helps assess the meaning of engineering as the extender of biology and ultimately helps engineering develop a clearer sense of its own nature and address the ethical issues involved in its modification of nature and the creation  of machines, that is artifacts. (Bugliarello, Mitcham, et al, 2005)”. In other words, bioengineering is a very important and upcoming field of study that bridges the gap to several different areas of science that are heavily related to one another. These areas of science, including medicine, biological organisms and engineering all coincide with another to form what is known as bioengineering. Bioengineering helps us to understand how engineering can extend the limitations of biological studies while at the same time enhancing biological studies through tackling issues within nature and ethics through biological engineering. “Eventually the interventions on the human body fulfilled other needs through diagnostic and curative tools and processes, from the application of bioengineering to bioastronautics starting in the 1960s (Konecci 1968) to X-ray visualization through computed tomography (CT), ultrasound scans, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), to hearing aids, surgical robots, autoanalyzers, DNA-sequencing machines, tissue engineering, and the application of engineering knowledge to the understanding of biological (Bejan 2000) and therapeutic processes.(Bugliarello, Mitcham, et al, 2005)” Furthermore, bioengineering opened the door to several operations that both were never thought of or were ever able to be conducting prior to its creation. Bioengineering has been able to completely alter countless lives in numerous beneficial ways through the creation of devices such as hearing aids, which allows people with poor hearing to be able to hear at a better rate, X-ray visualization which allows doctors to determine any breaks or misplacements in your body’s skeleton and tissue engineering that improves the surgical ability to replace or repair muscle tissues. In addition to all of these creations, bioengineering has also opened the door to MRI’s, surgical robots, ultrasound scans, autoanalyzers and many other methods that assist doctors in identifying the exact problem their patient is facing whether it be in the emergency room or at a regular check up. “Bioengineering is to design or construct using biological principles. Later chiefly: to produce or modify (a substance, organism, etc.) using the techniques of bioengineering, esp. genetic engineering.(Oxford University Press)”. Additionally, bioengineering is the pioneer to genetic engineering and altercation. “ All of these definitions are alike with one another because they all explain the overall understanding of what bioengineering ultimately is. For example, The first definition allows the reader to understand how bioengineering ultimately tackles issues in both nature and ethics while also being cut from the same cloth as medicine and biological organisms. The second definition allows you to have an interpretation of what bioengineering is and how several different aspects of science tie together as one in order to create what is known as bioengineering. However, one person may use this specific definition to illustrate how broad bioengineering can be and how it ushered in different procedures into the medical industry. The third definition gives a synopsis of what bioengineering is ultimately used to create and construct various principles in biology. 

Context [Heading Level 2]

  “In fact, bioengineering is a truly interdisciplinary field, drawing on the techniques and knowledge of all branches of science and engineering. (Maquire, Novik, et al, p11, 2010) To add to this, bioengineering is the combination of both biology and engineering to benefit various aspects of life. “Chapter 9 on “ Tissue Engineering ” by Bernd Denecke, Michael Wöltje, Sabine Neuss and Willi Jahnen-Dechent discusses the approach to tissue engineering by combining cells and biomaterials into functional tissues. (Artmann, G.M, Chien, et al, p11, 2008)” Tissue engineering is a huge staple amongst the bioengineering industry. This procedure allows for surgery to be conducted in order to combine cells from other organisms or a different area of the body in order to repair or replace tissues that are damaged. “Nanotechnology is another field in which bioengineering is used to develop innovative medical procedures and products. Nanotechnology is the production of technology and materials at an extremely tiny level. (Burillo-Kirch, Christine, Cornell, et al, p84, 2016)” The engineering aspect of bioengineering has allowed access to nanotechnology being incorporated into the medical field. This allows doctors to complete procedures that allow them to enter the human body through small crevices and analyze what can’t be seen by the normal human eye. Nano technology is also used through medical nanorobotics, eye surgery, painful injections being substituted for eye drops, and many more possibilities. 

Working Definition [Heading Level 2]

   Taking away from the definitions and quotes utilized throughout my writing, in my own words bioengineering is a life changing aspect of the medical field that is derived from a combination of biology and engineering. Bioengineering has created and further developed ideas of the medical industry in an effort to establish new ways to better the lives of living organisms and the environment we live in. Due to bioengineering, we have established new procedures such as eye surgery, tissue engineering, ultrasound scans, etc. While at the same time innovating new material such as X-ray vision, nanorobotics, hearing aids, etc. Bioengineering is relevant to my career because engineering is involved in a variety of aspects that design new advancements in every aspect of life everyday. WIthout bioengineering, the medical field would not be able to move forward anywhere in the near future. 

Reference [Heading Level 2]

Artmann, G., & Chien, S. (2008). Bioengineering in Cell and Tissue Research. In Bioengineering in Cell and Tissue Research (1. Aufl.). Springer-Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-75409-1

Burillo-Kirch, C., & Cornell, A. (2016). Bioengineering: Discover How Nature Inspires Human Designs with 25 Projects. In Bioengineering. Nomad Press.

Bugliarello, George. “Bioengineering Ethics.” Encyclopedia of Science, Technology, and Ethics, edited by Carl Mitcham, vol. 1, Macmillan Reference USA, 2005, pp. 190-193. Gale eBooks, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3434900093/GVRL?u=cuny_nytc&sid=GVRL&xid=cd964595. 

Accessed 6 Oct. 2020.

In Law, J., & Martin, E. (Eds.), Concise Medical Dictionary. : Oxford University Press. Retrieved 6 Oct. 2020, from https://www-oxfordreference-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/10.1093/acref/9780198836612.001.0001/acref-9780198836612-e-1093.  

Lachner, E., & Zumbusch, A. (2015). Bioengineering. In Bioengineering. Rosen Publishing Group 

Maguire, T., & Novik, E. (2010). Methods in Bioengineering: Alternative Technologies to Animal Testing. In Methods in Bioengineering. Artech House.

OED Online. (September 2020) “bioengineering. v.” Oxford University Press.

https://www-oed-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/Entry/273299?rskey=omdpBX&result=

Accessed October 06, 2020.

 

Introduction

As the internet and technology began to see many advancements, organizations realized the threats that can come from not having a security system in place.  These organizations include the U.S military. According to Kilroy (2008), “In the mid-1990s, the U.S. military recognized a growing threat to its informational architecture as well as the nation’s critical infrastructure from cyber warfare.” (p. 439).  For this paper, I will be defining the term ‘Military Cybersecurity’ and how it is viewed in different definitions. I will cite definitions and explain in context how authors and organizations view this term. 

Definitions

The Department of Defense Instruction 8500.01 (2014) defines cybersecurity as the “prevention of damage to, protection of, and restoration of computers, electronic communications systems, electronic communications services, wire communication, and electronic communication, including information contained therein, to ensure its availability, integrity, authentication, confidentiality, and nonrepudiation”. Cyber security threats to the military have been around for many years and the U.S government has been a victim to hackers from all around the world. As per the International Standards Organization, the definition of Cyber security is “the preservation of confidentiality, integrity, and availability information in cyberspace” (ISO, 27032). Very similarly, these organizations use the term ‘integrity’ when defining Cyber security. 

According to Efthymiopoulos (2019) “Cyber-security is a method of e-protection. It is a framework policy of and for defense when reflective to a political-military alliance such as NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)” (pg.1). The definitions listed are related to how the military views cybersecurity and what is the DoD’s expectation is on how to control the military networks and implement cyber security protocols. 

Context

Vacca (2011), mentioned that “both the US Navy and the US Air Force were originally founded to project US interests into non-governed common spaces, and both have established organizations to deal with cyber security. “(p. 159). Although this refers to two different branches of services, the overall goal for the DoD is to strengthen its cyber security. According to Krasznay & Hamornik (2019), “Governmental and military IT systems should be protected from criminals, foreign intelligence services and armed forces in cyberspace, just to name a few challenges. These elements require a new approach to cybersecurity especially in national security” (p. 291). Overall, any organization that uses technology devices, networks, or simply function through the internet, can encounter cyber security threats, to include the military. Boeke, Heinl & Veenendaal (2015). “Armed forces across the globe are investing in their capacity to defend their networks and systems, and increasingly, preparing to conduct military operations in cyberspace” (p. 70), the U.S Military, along with militaries around the world, understand the severity of cyber threats and how it could be a detrimental concern to their security information and governments.

Working Definition

The term Military Cybersecurity can be defined in many ways. Overall, specifically referring to the military, cybersecurity will continue to gain threats from hackers and it is extremely important to learn the new threats that occur and keep those who are involved and work with the military up to date with ways to prevent any cyber-attacks from happening. Cyber-attacks raise security concerns to government officials. For the major that I am studying and the career path that I chose, I believe that it is highly advisable for me to be aware of the cybersecurity concerns that the military faces. As a military member, I am aware of the constant trainings that the Air Force provides for its members on cybersecurity and awareness, and the important roles that we have in military cybersecurity. 

References

Kilroy, R. J., Jr. (2008). The U.S. Military Response to Cyber Warfare. In L. J. Janczewski & A. M. Colarik (Eds.), Cyber Warfare and Cyber Terrorism (pp. 439-445). Information Science Reference. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX2555100065/GVRL?u=cuny_nytc&sid=GVRL&xid=3af1f3ab

Efthymiopoulos, M. P. (2019). A cyber-security framework for development, defense and innovation at NATO. Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 8(1). doi:10.1186/s13731-019-0105-z

Snyder, D. (2015). Improving the cybersecurity of U.S. Air Force military systems throughout their life cycles. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.

Vacca, W. A. (2011). Military Culture and Cyber Security. Survival, 53(6), 159-176. doi:10.1080/00396338.2011.636520

Cyber Security Objectives. (2012). Cyber Security Policy Guidebook, 1-267. doi:10.1002/9781118241530.ch3

Krasznay, C., & Hamornik, B. (2019). Human Factors Approach to Cybersecurity Teamwork – The Military Perspective. Advances in Military Technology, 14(2). doi:10.3849/aimt.01296

  Boeke, S., Heinl, C., & Veenendaal, M. (2015). Civil-military relations and international military cooperation in cyber security: Common challenges & state practices across Asia and Europe. 69–80. https://doi.org/10.1109/CYCON.2015.7158469

TO: Prof. Jason Ellis

FROM: Mamadou M. Bah

DATE: October 14, 2020

SUBJECT: Expended Definition of Electromagnetism

Introduction

The purpose of this document is to write a 750-1000-Word expended definition of Electromagnetism. I will, first, find definitions of Electromagnetism from two different sources and use them for the document. Second, I will quote a contextual use of the term from an online source and explain it. Finally, I will define the term on my own words.

Definitions

In the article “Electricity and Magnetism” published in 2008 by Global Media, the author writes that “Electromagnetics (EM) or electromagnetism is a branch of physics or engineering in which electric and magnetic phenomena are studied. It may be regarded as the study of interactions between electric charges at rest and in motion” (Tayal, 2008, P. 746). According to the Authors, in physics, there is a branch that is called Electromagnetism also known as Electromagnetics that study the relationship of electricity and magnetism. This study is based on how moving electrical charges interact with charges that are at rest. Electromagnetism is divided into two elements, electricity and magnetism. Electricity is the study of moving electrical charges and Magnetism is the study of “magnetic phenomena”. The combination of these two terms, electricity and magnetism, is called electromagnetism. There are other definitions of the term from different sources.

Another definition of Electromagnetism comes from the article “Northern Lights to Death Rays: How Electromagnetism Haunts our Everyday Life” published by Global English in 2017. In the article, Electromagnetism is referred as “Electromagnetism was first discovered in the 19th century, when scientists recognized that the interaction of electrical currents and magnets could make objects move without touching” (Global English, 2017, P.1). The author argues that scientists discovered electromagnetism in the 19^th century. They realized at that time that objects could moves without people touching them due to the interaction of electrical currents and magnets. The two definitions are almost the same thing. If we look at both definitions, we see that electromagnetism is based on the interaction of the two terms electricity and magnetism or magnet.

Context

The term electromagnetism or electromagnetic is used in many different contexts. One example of the contextual usage of the term is on the article “Simple Models of Magnetism “, published in 2008. The author writes that “During the last 100 years, magnetism has made a giant step forward. By the second half of the nineteenth century, Maxwell’s equations had established the relation between different electromagnetic fields, and scientists and engineers were aware of the dipolar character of magnetostatic forces and interactions.”(Skomski, 2008, P. 349). In this quote, the term magnetism describes is referred as electromagnetism. It is also used as “electromagnetism field” which represent field lines created by magnetic materials and “magnetostatics forces” which represent the force that magnetic materials exercise to other material that surround them. Another use of the word is from this article “Patentable Subject Matter: What is the Matter with Matter?”. The author argues that “First, the words ‘electromagnetic signals’ and ‘electromagnetism’ are used interchangeably in this paper. The phrase ‘electromagnetic signals’ is often used when the ‘electromagnetism’ is not stationary, but is instead transmitted” (Dolly, Steven, 2010, P. 1). In this part, the author states that electromagnetism is referred as “electromagnetic signals” where electromagnetism produces a signal that is in motion. This shows us that electromagnetism can create signal. The term is used most of the time before another name such are “electromagnetic force”, “electromagnetic field” or “electromagnetic signals”.

Working Definition

Electromagnetism is the part of physics that study the relationships between electricity and magnetism. Therefore, it is important to know what electricity and magnetism are, and the role they play in electromagnetism. When electrical charges move in a material, it is called electricity. When these charges move, they move with a force that can attract or repulse other charges that are close to them. The materials the charges move in, also create an electric field around them. So, when a material is electrified, it becomes a magnet. Magnetics materials have electrical properties. So, they are related. Electromagnetism has been very important in the development of electricity. Magnetism is used to produce electricity. For example, electric machines use magnetism to produce electricity or use it. Transformers also use electromagnetism to transform electrical powers to different level of power that are needed. Therefore, electricity and magnetism are interrelated.

Bibliography

Tayal, D.C. (2008). Electricity and Magnetism. Global Media,ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com.

(October 31, 2017 Tuesday). Northern lights to death rays: how electromagnetism haunts our everyday life. Global English (Middle East and North Africa Financial Network). https://advance-lexis-com.

Skomski, R. (2008). Simple models of magnetism. ProQuest Ebook Central https://ebookcentral.proquest.com