Materials and their properties are very important to know when constructing a building.  Ching explains the use of many materials, concrete is made of cement, water, and many mineral materials such as sand, gravel, etc. Concrete by itself is very good withstanding compression, but concrete is horrible against tension. Therefore concrete has to be reinforced with steel so that it can be resistant to tension, these steel bars inside the concrete can be as wide as 32 (mm) in diameter (1.26 inches). However, the more wide they are, the heavier they become, something to be aware of. Brick is another material used in construction. Brick is a rectangular prism made out of clay, sometimes mud to change the surface texture of the brick . Ching explains that there are two types of brick: Face brick is special clay to add color and other features to make it look “pretty”, common brick in the other hand is the opposite because it does no such thing.

In reading assignment 5 ( Material & Properties / Ching ; 12.04 ~ 12.12 ) We explore the strengths and weakness of five fundamental building materials. the materials discussed are Stone, Brick/CMU, wood, steel and concrete. Following the reading order, we start off with the properties of stone; stone can be comprised of different compact minerals and inorganic matter, its compressibility is fairly high compared to its shear strength, being only 1/10 of its strength. This is why stone works very well when using it as load bearing walls.  these stones can be broken down into five categories; Hardness, Durability, work-ability, density and appearance. these characteristics of the stone determines how it should be used in a particular project. There  are three types of rock formation – Igneous , Metamorphic rock and sedimentary with some familiar names such as granite, marble and limestone falling under one of those classifications respectively. Next comes Masonry, which refers to brick, stone or concrete block. Brick which is defined by Chang as “a masonry unit of clay, formed into a rectangular prism ~ hardened by firing in a kiln” has different classification, which are determined by its moisture content, two types of brick  are called “common brick” and “face brick”.  these bricks come in different grades according to its resilience against  weather; classifications are NW, MW, and SW , with higher weather tolerance going from left to  right. concrete masonry which are precast of Portland cement are broken down into two groups; Grade N – load bearing concrete 800 to 1500 psi and  Grade S load bearing concrete 600 to 1000 psi and no moisture. The next material to discuss is wood; Wood can be broken down into two classes, Soft wood and hard wood. some examples of soft wood is ever green, pine and hemlock which can be used in general construction. some exampled of hardwood would be cherry maple and oak which can be used as decorative floor paneling. wood generally has 1/3 more of its force if  cut parallel to its grain. but steel which is the following construction material is the best of all worlds, steel has a compression and shear strength of about 50,000 psi and is defined by having a carbon content less than that of cast iron,  more than raw iron and is heat treated. steel can become hard or soft depending on the carbon content within the alloy. steel becomes ductile at approximately 1000 degrees Fahrenheit, making it necessary to coat it with anti corrosion and heat material.  the last material concrete is made from various minerals but can primary be broken down by its clay to limestone mixture. The Law D.A Abrams states that  Comprehensive strength of concrete is inversely proportional to the ratio of water to cement. A cement mixture with a water ratio approximately 0.45 ~ 0.60 can fully cure and harden after 28 days, with the 7th day allowing for early strength concrete.

With the fifth reading, Ching explains how certain materials are made, along with how they are used in construction. He first goes in depth with concrete, where he says that concrete is made using a mixture of water, cement, and aggregates (which is small minerals, such as sand or gravel). Depending on what you use, it will change the strength, weight, and resistance to fire when the concrete hardens. You may also add an admixture, which changes some properties on the concrete when it hardens. Steel Reinforcement is used on concrete, because concrete doesn’t handle tension as well as its compression. It is also used to tie vertical and horizontal elements together, strengthen the edges for openings and more. Bricks come in two forms, a building brick, or a face brick. A building brick is used for general building, and a face brick is mad up of clay, making it face a wall and usually used for a color or surface texture. There are different type of face bricks, and using these types changes its size, color, and distortion. Bricks are made of clay molded into a rectangular prism, and hardened by drying in the sun or heating it up. Concrete Masonry is concrete blocks made into various shapes to give it a specific purpose. A couple of examples would be a jamb block, which has a design to fit a jamb of a door within it, a lintel block which have a U shaped block where reinforced steel could fit into it, and many more. Stone comes from three origins: as an igneous metamorphosis, or sedimentary rock. To use a stone as a construction material it must have strength, hardness, durability, work ability, density, appearance. Wood is light, durable and easy to work with.  There are two types of wood, soft and hard wood. Softwood comes from different trees than hardwood, and depending on how the tree grew, it affects the strength, expansion/contraction and how good it is as an  insulator.

In this section of the book Ching is talking about Concrete, Masonry, Steel, Stoon and Wood. Concere is a mixed of water,aggregate and cement. There is 5 different types of cements are listed in Ching’s book. Adding Aggregate to Concrete is important to the strength, weight, and fire resistance of the hardened concrete. Masonry refers to a building with different natural products such as Bricks, Stone and Concrete blocks. Steel is basically any type of iron that have a carbon content less then cast iron and more than wrought iron. It has differen types of shaping such as first Structural tubing which can be either square, rectangular or circular. Second WT shape or L shape. Third is Basrd that can be either square, round and or even flat. Stone is an aggregate or combination of minerals which is composed of inorganic chemical substances to qualify as a construction material. to be qualified stone should have: strenght, hardness, Durability, workability, density and appearance. Reffering to ching’s book Wood is strong, durable, light in weight and easy to work with as a construction material. Two of the major classes of wood are softwood and hardwood.

Reading Number 5, In this Section Ching discusses the different types of building materials that are used and what purpose each of the material fulfills. The materials include Stone, Brick/CMU, Wood, Steel, and Concrete/Reinforced concrete. Each of the building materials Listed has its own select properties: Stone is useful as a load bearing material but has plenty of other uses like making aggerate, decoration purpose and structures like posts or flooring. Bricks/CMU could be used for common building or making masonry walls bricks are listed in 5 different categories each consisting of a different process of manufacturing (soft,sand,water,stiff,dry) and bricks have different ratings to see how durable they are from the elements (SW,MW,NW) Cmu on the other hand is concrete poured into specific shapes but are also used to create walls since these cmu’s are precast they can be made into any shape that will be needed on a building site (come in different weights and exposure ratings to the elements) Wood which come in all shapes, sizes and durability is a strong building element that is very versatile like all these other building elements certain woods are used for different  functions based on rating (N,A,B,C,C-Plugged, D) Steel which is common used as wide flange can be used to create beams but is also versatile and lastly concrete and reinforcement, concrete is made by mixing an aggerate with various minerals and water. Once the concrete is mixed it is than poured into casts with steel reinforcement to add structure and reinforcement to the cement.

In this part of the Ching’s book, he talks about the accessories of a foundation. He begins with stone, its qualities and types. According to ching, stone must have specific strength, hardness, durability, appearance, density and texture. The 3 main types of stone are Igneous Rock (Crystallization of molten magma), Sedimentary Rock (Removal of remains by glacial action), Metamorphic rock (changes in texture by heat and pressure). Some other types of stone are Rubble stone, which are the most rough, broken pieces. Crushed stone are the aggregate in concrete. Dimension stone are the uniformly shaped squares used for flooring and panels. And flagstone which are slabs used for flooring and vertical surfaces. Earlier in chapter 12 he defines bricks as Face (good for color and design) and Common or Building bricks (no treatment of color or texture). Their types vary from greater variation sizes and color range, to moderate, and narrow (FBX, FBS, FBA). Ching also warns us on page 6 chapter 12 that Efflorescence (exposed white powder of concrete from salts) can be treated with moisture absorption. Then, he labels with illustrations all types of blocks and their functions toward building a foundation. Furthermore in chapter 12, he introduces wood as natural, strong, lightweight, and friendly to use as a foundation or a design structure. The 2 major classes or wood are hard (from cherry or maple trees) or soft (from pine or spruce). Along with categorizing wood, he mentions that tree growth depicts strength and joints for enclosure. With his illustrations, he made clear that the grain direction depicts the use of wood as a structural material in the parallel direction to handle tension and compression well. However, tension that is perpendicular to the grain causes split! In addition, keep in mind that radial shrinkage can happen twice as much as tangential shrinkage. To protect your wood from fungi or bacteria (not 100%) dry its moisture to increase strength and stability. Moreover, on page 8, steel in described by Ching as high in strength, low-cost material, which must be coated with fire resistant materials, then he provides illustrations to the different shapes of steel. Finally, he provides the formula to make concrete (Cement+Water+Aggregate). Cement is a fine powder of burning a mix of limestone and clay. The water must be free of all organic materials. And aggregates must make up 60 to 80% of the concrete. The ratio of water to cement should be 0.45-0.60. Because concrete is not great in tension, it’s usually supported by reinforced steel. And now I summarized Ching’s part of his book about Masonry and materials in volumes.

Ching talks about concrete, masonry, stone, and wood. Reading five starts by Ching stating how concrete is made and how reinforcement is required to handle tensile and shear stresses. The mixing of cement and various mineral aggregates with sufficient water to cause the cement to set and blind the entire mass is what customs concrete. Then Ching talks about masonry which he refers to the building with units of various natural or manufactured product, examples are brick, stone, or concrete blocks. 12.07 explains concrete masonry units which are precast of Portland cement, fine aggregate, and water. Concrete masonry is molded into various shapes to satisfy various constructions. Stone is an aggregate or combination of minerals, each of which is composed of inorganic chemical substances. Ching tells us how stones should have the qualities strength, hardness, durability, workability, density, and appearance. 12.11-12.12 was about wood. Wood is mentioned to be as a construction material that’s strong, durable, light and weight, and easy to work with.

In reading four Ching talks about structural units, structural spans, structural patterns, and lateral stability. Structural units can be capable of defining and enclosing the volume of space for a habitation with the principal structural elements of column, beam, slab, and loadbearing wall. Structural spans explain the relationship between the span and the spacing of elements that influence the dimensions and scale of the space that are defined by the structural system of a building. Structural patterns are basically preparation of principal vertical supports of regulating the selection of a spanning system and also that determines the possibilities for the ordering of spaces and functions in a building. 2.22 “Lateral stability” explains how structural systems must be designed to carry vertical gravity loads and also withstand lateral wind and seismic force from any direction. The mechanisms for ensuring lateral stability are knee bracing, k-brace, and cross bracing. Ching also explains how the torsional effects of lateral forces are determined by the asymmetrical layout of irregular structures generally requires dynamic analysis.

In this section of the book Ching speaks about stone, masonry, brick, brick types, brick grades, wood, steel, and concrete. Ching explains that stone is an aggregate or combination of minerals, each of which is composed of inorganic chemical substances. He also says stone should have the following qualities strength, hardness, durability, workability, density, and appearance. Stone may also be classified according to geological origin into types of ingenious rock, metamorphic rock and sedimentary rock. Stone is also similar to modular unit masonry. Masonry refers to building with units of various natural or manufactured products, such as brick, stone, or concrete block. Brick is a mansonry unit of clay formed into a rectangular prism, just like stone there are different types of bricks as well and they are soft mud, sand bricks, water struck brick, stiff mud and dry press. Brick grades designates the Durability of a brick unit when exposed to weathering. In this section Ching explains that wood is strong, durable, light in weight, and easy to work, in addition it offers natural beauty and warmth to sight and touch. Lastly concrete is made by mixing cement and various mineral aggregates with sufficient water to cause the cement to set and bind the entire mass.

This reading covers structural units,  spans, and patterns. Some important units that we should  take in consideration would be beams,joist, and columns, bearing walls, slabs and decking. These elements put together can construct a solid well put together peace. There are two different types of systems there are one way systems and two way systems but two way systems are more effective there supported by four columns which defines a horizontal layered space. The length of the horizontal element depends on the vertical support. There are also patterns that are made up of a grid. Grids that you can make different varieties of. You can make regular, irregular and even rotations. Forms of stability are knee bracing, K bracing , cross bracing.  There are rigid frames bracing frames and shear walls to hold up.