TO: Prof. Jason Ellis  

FROM: Tasnuba Anika  

DATE: 10/21/20  

SUBJECT: Expanded Definition of Data Mining  

Introduction 

The purpose of this document is to discuss about the term “Data Mining” in detail. The term I am defining is how data mining is used in healthcare system. The article talks about the importance usage of data mining in healthcare system which I am going to elaborate and talk more in details. In this document I will first discuss the definitions, context and then the working definitions.  

Definitions 

Data mining can be interpreted as searching relevant information from large amount of data. In this technique huge sets of data are analyzed, and similar patterns are recognized. The data mining concept became popular in 1990 as software companies started using this methodology to track customer needs. After inspecting the data, they created software that would meet user expectations and market their product.  

Computer systems used in data mining can be immensely functional to regulate human constraints for instance inaccuracy caused by tiredness and to give advice in decision making. In the article “Data mining in healthcare: decision making and precision” the author talks about how “Computer systems used in data mining can be very useful to control human limitations such as subjectivity and error due to fatigue and to provide guidance to decision-making processes” (Ionuț ȚĂRANU, 2015, p.1). Getting information utilizing the computers can enhance productivity, saves time, and helps to solve problems efficiently. In this way doctors can easily diagnose patients’ complications and treat them accordingly.

There is a system in data mining called predictive model which is discussed in the article “The Hazards of Data Mining in Healthcare” where author talks about how “data mining techniques used for predictive modelling are based on common hospital practices that may not necessarily follow best practice models, where such a model can recommend inappropriate medication orders that will be used and reinforce poor decision making within the healthcare organization and impact the delivery of patient care” (Mowafa Househ et al., 2017,p. 82). It predicts diseases, update doctors with the new treatments and provides many details regarding healthcare. Moreover, it assists the practitioners to enhance their diagnosis and surgery planning strategy. When there is huge amount of data but the resources are limited it is a matter to concern but only cloud computing have the solution as in the article “A Comprehensive Survey on Cloud Data Mining (CDM) Frameworks and Algorithms”  the authors discussed how “Cloud data mining fuses the applicability of classical data mining with the promises of cloud computing” (Hrishav Bakul Barua et al.,2019, p. 1). Which will allow to use huge amount of data efficiently. 

Context 

In the article “The Hazards of Data Mining in Healthcare” the author talks about “One major challenge that relates to building data mining models is the quality and the relevance of the data used in the healthcare data mining project [4]. Healthcare data is complex and collected from a variety of sources that include structured and unstructured healthcare data and “without quality data there is no useful results”” (Mowafa Househ and Bakheet Aldosari, 2017, p.2). Mining data is not enough it has to be qualityful and relevant to what we need without the quality the data is of no use.  “Data sharing over the healthcare organization is another challenge for data mining sector.” (Mowafa Househ and Bakheet Aldosari, 2017, p.2). Privacy concerns include complexity while collecting data from one hospital to another healthcare institution. In past years, many health centers faced security threats and it is creating barriers in data mining. That is why Hospitals are not willing to share their data because they want to keep their information safe. If hospitals shared each other’s data, then data mining outcome would have been similar in all healthcare institutions. 

Data mining needs proper technology and logical strategies, and methods for communicating and tracking which can allow computing of outcomes. There are many unorganized raw data are available in the hospitals. Those data are different and voluminous by style. These types of data can cause problems in data mining and eventually generates incorrect results. That is why in the article “Data mining in healthcare: decision making and precision” the author mentioned “The ability to use a data in databases in order to extract useful information for quality health care is a key of success of healthcare institutions” (Ionuț ȚĂRANU, 2015,p.3,). 

Working Definition 

Overall, we can say that data mining has great significance in the medical field, and it illustrates inclusive operation that requires rigorous comprehension of necessity of healthcare institutions. Data warehouse is a storage where all data are saved and can be retrieved. In this way they can be incorporated to format health center information system. To address the challenges of data mining we must make sure the data mining experiments are done properly. Necessary research should be conducted, and doctors should not only depend on the data mining results to treat patients. They should analyze the outcomes to determine whether the result is correct or not. Otherwise, patients’ health will be in danger. 

References  

BARUA, H. B., & MONDAL, K. C. (2019). A Comprehensive Survey on Cloud Data Mining (CDM) Frameworks and Algorithms. ACM Computing Surveys, 52(5), 1–62. https://doi-org/10.1145/3349265  

Househ, M., & Aldosari, B. (2017). The Hazards of Data Mining in Healthcare. Studies In Health Technology And Informatics, 238, 80–83. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=mdc&AN=28679892&site=ehost-live&scope=site 

ȚĂRANU, I. ionut. co. (2015). Data mining in healthcare: decision making and precision. Database Systems Journal, 6(4), 33–40. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aci&AN=115441821&site=ehost-live&scope=site 

TO: Prof. Jason Ellis

FROM: Kevin Andiappen

DATE: 10/22/2020

SUBJECT: Expanded Definition of cyber-security

Introduction

The purpose of this document is to give an expanded definition of the term cyber-security. I will be defining cyber-security in the context of information technology (IT). In this document, I will be discussing several definitions of cyber-security that I have discovered, followed by a few contextual examples. In closing my expanded definition, I will provide my very own working definition of cyber-security based off of my research.

Definitions

The first definition comes from Gale eBooks. It defines cyber-security as, “A critical and necessary component of computer systems, implemented to protect computer users and networks from threats from nefarious cyber actors, to protect them from computer disruptions that are intended and unintended, as well as to prepare for unpreventable natural disasters.” (Harper, 2015, pp. 123). Cyber-security is looked at as a necessary component used to protect users and networks from hackers or anyone with malicious intent. Additionally, it can also help prevent disruptions in computer systems and networks whether it be intentional or unintentional and helps us prepare for disaster recovery. For example, say a company hires a new IT intern and gives him the responsibility of managing the user accounts on the domain. He creates a new user account and is supposed to give only the standard permissions to this user. However, he mistakenly grants the user administrator privilege’s.  This is a bad because the user will have equal access to the domain administrator and will be able to login to any of the workstations in the office and make unauthorized changes to all of the other employees’ files and applications. All of this can occur because of that technicality.

The second definition also comes from Gale eBooks. It says, “Cyber-security provides security against threats to data that resides on computer architecture, hardware, software and networks connecting in cyberspace.” (Harper, 2015, pp. 123). As we see in the first definition, cyber-security is defined as a tool or component used to prepare for and prevent cyber attacks and natural disasters. In this definition, cyber-security is described as providing security to the data that is contained in the system. This ranges from the architecture, hardware, software, and network. Cyber-security is defined here as protecting the data in the organization rather than focusing on securing the network or computer systems. For example, Netflix has millions of users that stream content to their devices. In order to use Netflix, you have to obtain a subscription, which requires your credit card information. If Netflix became victim to a cyber-attack, every user’s credit card information would become compromised. So you see, even though protecting our systems is a top priority, the data we have is even more valuable.

The third definition comes from barracuda.com. It defines cyber-security as, “the practice of protecting technological systems, networks, and programs from digital attacks, damage, or unauthorized access.” (Barracuda, 2020, page 1). This defines cyber-security as a practice of protecting our computer systems from unauthorized attacks and access. Think of it this way, what is the purpose of having a lock on your front door? Why do we install security cameras in and outside of our houses? Its for protection. The same way cyber-security works. We install counter measures to prevent unauthorized use of our resources. This quote is similar to the first two I mentioned because we are talking about protection. Whether its about protecting the data itself or the system, the idea of anticipating and preventing cyber attacks is the common goal.

Context

“Individual users can suffer greatly from a cyber-security attack. They risk identity theft, extortion, or total data erasure. This fallout of these attacks at a national level is even greater. Local and global infrastructure is built on connected technology and guaranteeing the security of this network is essential for the productivity and safety of an always online society.” (Barracuda, 2020, pp 1). This implies how important cyber-security is for everyone. Ranging from the everyday user, to national security. Without it, everyone is susceptible to having their identity/data manipulated or erased.

“Some fear we are creating future hackers by teaching students how to penetrate computer networks and systems, but that is not the case. To fix something, you first must know how it works; in essence, you must know how to break it in order to fix it. Once students know what is broken, they can fix it or make it more secure.” (Crespo, 2020, pp. 20). In this context, the term cyber-security is used as an educational tool. Students learn how to penetrate computer systems to understand the point of view of a hacker. The goal of this is, if you understand the mind of a hacker, then you will know how to anticipate their attacks.

Working Definition:

As it relates to my major/career field, cyber-security is the study and/or practice of the protection of computer systems and networks. With out this, our IT infrastructures would be completely open to disruptions and attacks. Cyber-security ensures that only authorized users are given access to certain systems and parts of the network. In addition, it also is used as a way of securing the data within the computer and the network. Essentially, it provides protection for both the equipment and the data kept inside the infrastructure.

References

Barracuda Networks. (n.d.). Retrieved October 12, 2020, from https://www.barracuda.com/glossary/cyber-security

Crespo, M. (2020). let’s collaborate! cyber security. Technology & Engineering Teacher, 80(2), 20–21. Harper, K. A. (2015). Cybersecurity. In C. T. Anglim (Ed.),

Privacy Rights in the Digital Age (pp. 123-126). Grey House Publishing. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX6403900059/GVRL?u=cuny_nytc&sid=GVRL&xid=eb92a570

Introduction

This document aims to define and discuss the concept of Multi-Factor Authentication, sometimes written as Multifactor Authentication, and also referred to as MFA. According to Google Trends, interest in the term Multi-Factor Authentication has grown to 41%, up from a mere 3% back in 2004. It is a term that relates to online security and the protection of accounts and essentially the data those accounts possess. First, I will discuss definitions of Multifactor Authentication, write about how it is relevant then provide my definition of the term.

Definitions

The Oxford English Dictionary(2014) defines authentication as “the action or process of validating, approving, or authenticating something” and defines multifactor as “involving or dependent on a number of factors or causes.” Without attaching any context to the term, Multifactor Authentication means more than one factor for authenticating something.

In the technological industry, “Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA) is a form of strong authentication which uses more than one information…” (S. Ibrokhimov et al., 2019). This definition suggests the use of a username and password in addition to another vital piece of identification data such as the answer to a security question, as substantial components for Multi-Factor Authentication.

Another technical perspective states that “Multi-factor authentication can incorporate various layers of authentication solutions implemented in conjunction with one another, such as user name and password with a token and a biometric finger scanner.” (Tatham, M. et al., 2009). This definition plainly describes the flexibility of Multi-factor authentication where a user could choose to use their username and password plus a security question plus a one-time pin or token plus a finger scan or a facial scan to authenticate to a website or application. All three definitions maintain the understanding that Multifactor Authentication involves a username and password plus two or more steps for validation. Interestingly, the Oxford English Dictionary does not specify what factors are used to determine authentication. Whereas, S. Ibrokhimov et al.’s definition, even though not very specific, indicates that information is needed to verify authentication. Better than that, Tatham, M. et al.’s definition goes even further by naming the information needed (e.g username, password, a token, and fingerprint) required for authentication.

Context

With a better understanding of what Multi-Factor Authentication is, it is easier to picture how it relates to everyday life. A digestible approach would be to think of physical security. Physical items in the home are secured by the use of a door with a lock and a key. Now consider digital security. Digital things such as personal email accounts are secured by a username and password. Imagine that digital items are like physical items, a door with a lock is like a username and the key is like a password. Even though the lock and key help keep the physical items secured, they are not always enough to prevent break-ins. A lock can be picked similarly to how a password can be hacked. One way to deter a break-in would be to add an alarm system, this is where Multi-Factor Authentication comes in. “You should use MFA whenever possible, especially when it comes to your most sensitive data—like your primary email, your financial accounts, and your health records.” (National Institute of Standards and Technology [NIST],2016). Due to increasing data breaches of consumer companies (Staples, Home Depot, Target, and Michaels), health insurance companies (Primera Blue Cross and Anthem) and financial institutions (JPMorgan Chase and the IRS), there is no guarantee that only a username and password are enough to deter hackers from breaking into personal online accounts. “Multi-Factor Authentication is your friend” (Gray, 2019), this statement was posted in a Forbes.com article after several data breach stories surfaced in the news. We should all start familiarizing ourselves with password authentication processes consisting of more than two steps to help ensure the safety of our digital data and Multi-Factor Authentication is an additional line of defense to help ward off cyber-crime.

Working Definition

After doing research and thinking about my experience using Multi-Factor Authentication, I would define it as an account login process requiring username and password plus at least two methods of verification that may include the use of tokens (an authentication app or one-time pin code) and biological input (a fingerprint scan or face scan).

References

Granville, K. (2015, February 5). 9 recent cyberattacks against big businesses. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/02/05/technology/recent-cyberattacks.html

Gray, J. (2019, October 7). Amping up security through passwords and multi-factor authentication. Forbes.com. https://www.forbes.com/sites/joegray/2019/10/07/amping-up-security-through-passwords-and-multi-factor-authentication/#59602c876dce

Google. (n.d.). [Google Trend of term Multifactor Authentication]. Retrieved October 4, 2020, from https://trends.google.com/trends/explore?date=all&geo=US&q=%2Fm%2F05zybfn

National Institute of Standards and Technology. (2016, June 28). Back to basics: Multi-factor authentication (MFA). NIST. https://www.nist.gov/itl/applied-cybersecurity/tig/back-basics-multi-factor-authentication

Oxford University Press. (n.d.). Authentication. In OED Online. Retrieved September 27, 2020, from www.oed.com/view/Entry/13323

Oxford University Press. (n.d.). Mutlifactor. In OED Online. Retrieved September 27, 2020, from www.oed.com/view/Entry/254366

S. Ibrokhimov, K. L. Hui, A. Abdulhakim Al-Absi, h. j. lee and M. Sain, “Multi-Factor Authentication in Cyber Physical System: A State of Art Survey,” 2019 21st International Conference on Advanced Communication Technology (ICACT), PyeongChang Kwangwoon_Do, Korea (South), 2019, pp. 279-284, doi: 10.23919/ICACT.2019.8701960.

Smith, J.F. (2015, May 26). Cyberattack exposes I.R.S. tax returns. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/27/business/breach-exposes-irs-tax-returns.html Tatham, M., & Honkanen, A. (2009). Mobility for Secure Multi-Factor “Out of Band” Authentication. In B. Unhelkar (Ed.), Handbook of Research in Mobile Business: Technical, Methodological, and Social Perspectives (2nd ed., pp. 388-398). Idea Group Reference. https://link-gale-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/apps/doc/CX1809100051/GVRL?u=cuny_nytc&sid=GVRL&xid=a41ac927

TO: Prof. Jason Ellis

FROM: Shital B K

DATE: 10/21/2020

SUBJECT: Expanded Definition of Version Control

Introduction

The purpose of this document is to elaborate about the term “Version Control”. The document contains three different parts including definitions, context and working definitions. The core term to be defined and elaborated in the document will be about Git and GitHub which are known to be focus of the version control system used in these modern days.

Definitions

Version control systems are a category of software tools used to record changes of files by keeping a track of modifications done to the code. In software engineering, version control is a tool responsible for keeping track of the changes made in programs, documents, and files. Git and GitHub are one of the popular version controls used these days. Ninety percent of the software engineers use these tools to simplify their tasks while writing code. “A version control system (VCS) allows you to track the iterative changes you make to your code. Thus, you can experiment with new ideas but always have the option to revert to a specific past version of the code you used to generate particular results.” (Blischak, Davenport, Wilson, 2016, p.1).

“Git, the brainchild of Linus Torvalds, began its life in 2005 as a revision management system used for coordinating the Linux kernel’s development.” (Spinellis, 2012, p.100). Git is a distributed version control system for tracking changes in source code in the software development process. GitHub is another tool used in software development which runs with git by providing some additional features.  “GitHub uses a “fork & pull” collaboration model, where developers create their own copies of a repository and submit requests when they want the project maintainer to incorporate their changes into the project’s main branch, thus providing an environment in which people can easily conduct code reviews.” (Gousios, Spinellis, 2017, p.501). The additional features of GitHub include, task management, bug tracking, feature requests and collaboration ease among the developers.

Context

Today’s software development cannot be imagined without version control and specially without the use of Git and GitHub. “First, by keeping locally a complete version of a repository, git allows you to work and commit individual changes without requiring Internet connectivity. This local staging area also makes it possible for you to edit, reorder, and squash together your past commits (rebase, in git’s parlance) in order to present a coherent story to the outside world.” (Spinellis, 2012, p.101).  Git and GitHub has made the workflow of the developers convenient and efficient which allows them to be productive. “Developers don’t really care whether they work on version 8.2.72.6 of branch RELENG_8_2, but they care deeply about software revisions: changes they made to ­ x a specific­ bug, infrastructure changes that were needed to support that ­ x, another set of changes that didn’t work out, and some work in progress that was interrupted to work on that urgent bug ­ x. Fittingly for a tool written by a programmer to scratch his own itch, git supports these needs with gusto.” (Spinellis, 2012, p.100). Git allows developers a complete clone of the repository which means a complete copy of the projects that can be used in their existing work. As a result, these features are mostly required in the software development which is the reason every developer uses Git and GitHub.

Another feature of git is that it elevates the software revisions which allows developers to select precisely which one will comprise an integrated change, down to partial changes within a single file. “More importantly, git keeps as a graph a complete history of what changes have been merged into which branches, thus allowing developers to think in terms of revisions they’ve integrated rather than low-level ­ file differences between diverging branch snapshots.” (Spinellis, 2012, p.100). The merge feature allows to add the additional piece of code which can be added in the existing repository. The merge feature generally works with the branches where two branches are combined.

Working Definitions

Version Control has made the life of developers very easier and it has been one of the mandatory tools to be used in the software development environment. Some of the most popular version control systems such as Git and GitHub should be learned by every developer.

References

Gousios, G., & Spinellis, D. (2017). Mining Software Engineering Data from GitHub. ICSE: International Conference on Software Engineering, 501–502. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICSE-C.2017.164

Spinellis, D. (2012). Git. IEEE Software, 29(3), 100–101. https://doi.org/10.1109/MS.2012.61

Blischak, J. D., Davenport, E. R., & Wilson, G. (2016). A Quick Introduction to Version Control with Git and GitHub. PLoS Computational Biology, 12(1), 1–18.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004668

Introduction

The purpose of the 750-1000 Word Expanded Definition is to explore the definition of the term “Algorithm” which is a set of rules followed in a problem solving operation. I will be defining the term “Algorithm” which is a list of rules and you can use data structures. In the project, I will introduce Algorithms with different defining quotations from confirmed sources and I will be able to explain and compare those definitions from the authors I found. Next, I will discuss the context of the word Algorithm for the sources I have. Finally, I will be giving details on my own definitions of Algorithm after the quotes I provided.

Definition

According to the McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, an algorithm is, “A well-defined procedure to solve a problem. The study of algorithms is a fundamental area of computer science. In writing a computer program to solve a problem, a programmer expresses in a computer language an algorithm that solves the problem, thereby turning the algorithm into a computer program” (Algorithm, 2005, p.76). Essentially, an algorithm is a set of steps that can be followed to accomplish a task. The author tries to explain that Algorithms have a programmer that gives problems to solve. However, he is explaining how computer science people use algorithms in many different ways and when it comes to problem solving the computer language will perform in people minds. These definitions are related to the other because they all have to do with problem solving and unique this programmer is. “An algorithm is any well-defined procedure for solving a given class of problems. Ideally, when applied to a particular problem in that class, the algorithm would yield a full solution. Nonetheless, it makes sense to speak of algorithms that yield only partial solutions or yield solutions only some of the time. Such algorithms are sometimes called “rules of thumb” or “heuristics” (DEMBSKI, 2003, p.7).  Comparing the two definitions, these authors are mentioning well-defined procedure and its solving problems to get solutions. One author example is something different than the other author had mentioned in the second definition.

Context

In the Article “Security in the Information Age” by Craig Howard “Ciphers change the position or value of each individual character in the message. Ciphers are much easier to use than codes, which require large code books listing every word or group of words that will be used. A cipher, on the other hand, requires only a mathematical formula, called an algorithm, that can often be easily memorized. The message to be encrypted is called plaintext, the message after it is encrypted is called ciphertext” (Howard, 1995, p.33). The term algorithm is used in this quote to describe what a cipher is. The author equates an algorithm with a mathematical formula like a set of instructions, a mathematical formula tells us how to solve a problem. In the newspaper “Private Numbers” posted by  Ben Klemens explains how the new economy has appeared in mathematics which has to do with computer science. “The reader has no doubt been exposed to more than enough rhetoric about the fact that we live in an information age and our economic progress depends on the efficient movement and processing of information — and efficient information usage depends on better mathematical algorithms” (Klemens, 2006). The world depends on movements like matemcial because it is a way to understand the problem solving in the world. Algorithms play a big role in the world and if there wasn’t such a thing about it then it wouldn’t be a problem to solve. In the Article “Algorithm” written by Lee lerner is explaining how accomplish is algorithms and how far it can take you. “An algorithm is a set of instructions for accomplishing a task that can be couched in mathematical terms. If followed correctly, an algorithm guarantees successful completion of the task. The term algorithm is derived from the name al-Khowarizmi, a ninth-century Arabian mathematician credited with discovering algebra. With the advent of computers, which are particularly adept at utilizing algorithms, the creation of new and faster algorithms has become an important field in the study of computer science” (Lerner, 2014, p.131).  Algorithms are a success and it is from the 19th century which was years ago. That’s how you know that Algorithms are a great use.It should always be around for everyone uses it in the math field.  

Working Definition

The discussions above, I think Algorithms is the most important list of steps for solving problems. Algorithms are very important in my career field because I will be coming across  a lot of math when having to deal with computer programming and the math that I will have to solve so I can get a solution to what I’m trying to solve. Algorithms will be used years and years from now and it will never not be important. 

References

Algorithm. (2005). In McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, 5th ed., McGraw-Hill Professional, 2005, p. 76. Gale eBooks, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3475800207/GVRL?u=cuny_nytc&sid=GVRL&xid=54c4b65b. 

Algorithm. (2003). In Encyclopedia of Science and Religion, edited by J. Wentzel Vrede van Huyssteen, vol. 1, Macmillan Reference USA, 2003, pp. 7-8. Gale eBooks, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3404200018/GVRL?u=cuny_nytc&sid=GVRL&xid=cc98c8c.

Klemens, B. (2006). Private Numbers.

Algorithm. (2014). In The Gale Encyclope dia of Science, edited by K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, 5th ed., vol. 1, Gale, 2014, p. 131. Gale eBooks, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3727800076/GVRL?u=cuny_nytc&sid=GVRL&xid=7b6e67ce. 

TO: Prof. Jason Ellis

FROM: Teodor Barbu

DATE: 10/21/20

SUBJECT: Expanded Definition of Cloud Computing

Introduction

In this paper I will discuss few definitions of the technology term cloud computing. Next, I will analyze some contextual discussions, and in the end, I will provide a working definition of the term.

Definitions

The origin of the term “cloud” in technology comes from the early networking drawings, where a multitude of server icons intersecting each other looked like a puffy cloud. In time, an icon with a shape of a cloud was adopted to express connectivity areas on a network. Amazon is one of the pioneer companies that envisioned the real potential usage of “The Cloud” and in 2002 they launched Amazon Web Services.     

In “Cloud Computing Bible,” Barrie Sosinsky defines the term as “Cloud computing refers to applications and services that run on a distributed network using virtualized resources and accessed by common Internet protocols and networking standards. It is distinguished by the notion that resources are virtual and limitless and that details of the physical systems on which software runs are abstracted from the user” (Sosinsky, 2011, p. 3). He points out that unlimited resources are just one click away and accessible from anywhere. Cloud services are available to the end user in a virtualized network without him knowing exactly how everything works.

Another interesting definition is laid out in the article “Cloud Computing: Survey on Energy Efficiency.” Its authors say, “Cloud computing is today’s most emphasized Information and Communications Technology (ICT) paradigm that is directly or indirectly used by almost every online user. However, such great significance comes with the support of a great infrastructure that includes large data centers comprising thousands of server units and other supporting equipment” (Mastelic, Oleksiak, Claussen, Brandic, Pierson, Vasilakos, 2014, p. 1). All the computers are networked together and share their resources according to everyone’s fast-paced environment. Companies offer cloud computing services like software as a service, platform as a service, or infrastructure as a service and we use those in our everyday browsing not even knowing most of the times.

Context

The next one is not quite a definition because it is incomplete, but it makes the transition into the contextual section. In contrast with the previous examples the authors of this next book discuss the ideas that many people are interested in what’s inside the cloud and that’s why many inside processes are made available to the user. The authors write, “There has been a lot of debate about what the cloud is. Many people think of the cloud as a collection of technologies. It’s true that there is a set of common technologies that typically make up a cloud environment, but these technologies are not the essence of the cloud” (Rountree, Castrillo, 2014, p. 1). Today cloud services are available to everyday people, not only to companies, so they need access to more information to choose these services and configure them according to user’s needs.

The next two contextual appearances are in articles from The New York Times. In the first one Kate Conger talks about Pentagon’s plan to upgrade military’s cloud computing platforms. In her piece she writes, “The Defense Department on Friday reaffirmed its decision to award a massive cloud computing contract to Microsoft, despite protests from Amazon, which had argued that President Trump interfered to prevent it from winning the $10 billion contract” (Conger, 2020, para 1). Even though Amazon is the market leader for cloud infrastructure, The Defense Department is likely to choose Microsoft. Here Conger uses the term to generalize a multitude of services and technologies that the military wants to modernize.

In the second article Daisuke Wakabayashi and Michael Levenson inform us about a situation where some Google services could not be accessed by their users on the East Coast of the U. S. for about one hour. They state, “The outages also seemed to affect corporate customers of Google’s cloud computing service, who rely on the technology giant for its computing infrastructure” (Wakabayashi, & Levenson, 2020, para 5). The term is used here to describe services that were down like Gmail, YouTube, Google Drive, Google’s search engine and other Google services. Even with powerful servers backed up in scattered locations all over the world, managing today’s massive volume of information is a challenge for all the technology giants out there.

Working Definition

In the beginning very few people knew exactly how the cloud works, but almost everybody recognized its power. Even today is a mystery for many, and some may think that all the data is really going up there somewhere in the clouds. We can admit that as a metaphor it may be true. In simpler terms we can say that through the cloud we externalized almost everything (and even more) that we do on our local computer. A cluster of machines is working together as a giant resource available and ready for us to use. Once we connect to the internet, we get access to anything from anywhere on any device we might have. In this way we can access applications that are not installed on our device or not even running on it. We can use power or storage without worrying about security or other expenses because an array of computers and servers all over the internet are sharing their resources with us through a network. 

References

Conger, K. (2020, September 4). Pentagon sticks with Microsoft for cloud computing contract. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/04/technology/jedi-contract-microsoft-amazon.html?searchResultPosition=1

Mastelic, T., Oleksiak, A., Claussen, H., Brandic, I., Pierson, J., Vasilakos, A. (2014). Cloud computing: Survey on energy efficiency. ACM Computing Surveys, 47(2), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.1145/2656204

Rountree, D., Castrillo, I. (2014).The basics of cloud computing : Understanding the fundamentals of cloud computing in theory and practice. Elsevier, Inc.

Sosinsky, B. (2011).Cloud computing bible. Wiley Publishing, Inc.

Wakabayashi, D., Levenson, M. (2020, September 24). Google services go down in some parts of U.S. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/24/technology/google-service-outage.html?searchResultPosition=2

TO: Prof. Jason Ellis

FROM: Lia Barbu

DATE: October 21, 2020

SUBJECT: Expanded Definition of  Virtualization

Introduction

This document is an expanded definition essay of the technical term virtualization. In this document, I will try to define virtualization in the context of computer science. I will discuss several definitions of virtualization in the existing literature, followed by several contextual discussions. Finally, I will provide a working definition of the term.

Definitions

Oxford English Dictionary defines the verb virtualize as “to give virtual existence to (an intangible or abstract idea, concept, etc.) by perceiving it as, or demonstrating it to be, manifested or present in a real object, action, etc., within the world” (Oxford English Dictionary, n.d.). Virtualization is a derivative of virtualize. Bhanu Prakash Reddy Tholeti, in his article “Hypervisors, Virtualization, and Networking,” says, “Virtualization is the creation of flexible substitutes for actual resources that have the same functions and external interfaces as their actual counterparts, but that differ in attributes such as size, performance, and cost. These substitutes are called virtual resources; their users are typically unaware of the substitution” (Tholeti, 2014, p.387). It means that virtualization uses the existing resources and creates virtual hardware or software with the same quality as a physical resource and less cost. The magic of virtualization is that the users are not aware that whatever they use is only virtual, not physical. Virtualization is the process of extending a computer’s resources multiplying the hardware and software. In this definition, the author highlights the users’ satisfaction. The difference between physical and virtual resources is untraceable. Cerling, Buller, Enstall, and Ruiz offer a more complex and detailed definition in their book “Mastering Microsoft Virtualization.” They say, “In the last few years, the word virtualization has been a topic of discussion in most, if not all, IT organizations. Not only has it promised to save organizations money, but it has consistently delivered on that promise. The first area that this has generally been applied to is the server space. Organizations often take three, four, or more physical servers, create virtual machines running what previously ran on a physical server, and run those workloads on a single physical server hosting multiple virtual machines. Reducing the number of physical servers saves the cost of purchasing, maintaining, powering, and in some cases licensing those physical servers” (Cerling, Buller, Enstall and Ruiz, 2010, p. XVII). The authors emphasize how, through what it does, virtualization is a hot subject for IT companies. Virtualization creates on one server virtual machines with capacities of more than one server. Using virtualization, an organization uses its resources at more than maximum capabilities. Using virtualization, the company reduces the cost of resources and all the other pieces that come with them, like maintenance. It is explained that virtualization in the last few years has become necessary for IT businesses. Compared with the previous definition, this approach highlights the advantages virtualization brings to IT organizations. Pearce, Zeadally, and Hunt, in their article “Virtualization: Issues, Security Threats, and Solutions,” tell us, “In essence, system virtualization is the use of an encapsulating software layer that surrounds or underlies an operating system and provides the same inputs, outputs, and behavior that would be expected from physical hardware” (Pearce, Zeadally, & Hunt, 2013, p. 17). This definition is describing how virtualization uses software to create hardware precisely as a physical one. It refers strictly to how the virtualization process works. It generates a virtual version of a resource giving the possibility to run different systems at once on it. 

Context

Douglis and Kreiger tell us in their article “Virtualization” that, “Virtualization has been a part of the computing landscape for nearly half a century” (Douglis & Krieger, 2013, p. 6). This simple sentence gives us a lot of information about virtualization. It can be said that it synthetizes the age of virtualization in the computer science field. Jordan Shamir in his article “5 Benefits of Virtualization” says, “Despite being created decades ago, virtualization continues to be a catalyst for companies’ IT strategies” (Shamir, 2020, para 15). This shows how important virtualization in today’s IT environment. It is essential for a successful IT business.

Working Definition

Virtualization is the process of using the software in generating new resources with the same qualities and capabilities as physical ones, which is a plus for users and less costly, which is a plus for IT companies.  Even, in use for the last half of the century in this fast computing environment is still the primary mechanism in IT organizations’ plans.

References

Cerling, T., Buller, J., Enstall, C., & Ruiz, R. (2010). Mastering microsoft virtualization. Wiley Publishing, Inc

Douglis, F., & Krieger, O. (2013). Virtualization. IEEE Internet Computing, 17(2), 6–9. https://doi.org/10.1109/MIC.2013.42

Oxford University Press. (n. d.). Virtualization. In Oxford English Dictionary Online. Retrieved October 6, 2020, from https://www-oed-com.citytech.ezproxy.cuny.edu/view/Entry/267579?redirectedFrom=virtualization#eid93859051

Pearce, M., Zeadally, S., & Hunt, R. (2013). Virtualization: issues, security threats, and solutions. ACM Computing Surveys, 45(2), 17–17:39. https://doi.org/10.1145/2431211.2431216

Shamir, J (2020, April 8). 5 Benefits of Virtualization. IBM. https://www.ibm.com/cloud/blog/5-benefits-of-virtualization Tholeti, B. R. (2014). Hypervisors, virtualization, and networking. In C. DeCusatis (Ed.), Handbook of Fiber Optic Data Communication: A Practical Guide to Optical Networking (4th ed., pp. 387-416). Academic Press. https://link.gale.com/apps/pub/8DPU/GVRL?u=cuny_nytc&sid=GVRL

Adewale Adeyemi’s Expanded Definition of Immunology

TO: Prof. Jason Ellis

FROM: Adewale R. Adeyemi

DATE: 10/08/2020

SUBJECT: Expanded Definition of immunology

Introduction

The purpose of this document is to write expanded definition on the term immunology which is a branch of biomedicine that deals with the structure and function of the immune system. The term immunology will be scarcely mention in this writing rather immune system will be made mention of a lot as immunology shines a brighter light on what compromises the immune system, its structure, how it works and cells that are essential to the immune system.

The topics covered in this paper will include the definition and structure of the immune system, types of immunity which is innate and adaptive, and immunopathology’s like autoimmunity.

Definitions

“The immune system refers to a collection of cells and proteins that function to protect the skin, respiratory passages, intestinal tract and other areas from foreign antigens, such as microbes (organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and parasites), viruses, cancer cells, and toxins.”( Warrington et al, 2011, p.1).  This means the immune system is a complex network of organs tissue and substances they make which helps the body fight infections and diseases.

“The immune system is a distinct organ in vertebrates, specialized to defend against invading infections or poisons in order to preserve the integrity of the organism.” (Stefan Offermanns, 2008, p.482). Here the immune system is a collection of organs in the vertebrates which is designed to fight against infections and diseases. Both definitions are both related in the sense that, tit could be a collection of cells or a distinct organ in the body but they both fight against infections and diseases.

The innate immune response has no immunologic memory and, therefore, it is unable to recognize or “memorize” the same pathogen should the body be exposed to it in the future (Marshall et al, 2018, p.1). This means innate immune response lacks the ability to quicky and specifically recognize a virus the body as encountered before and immediately initiate a corresponding response.

Adaptive immunity, on the other hand, is antigen-dependent and antigen-specific and, therefore, involves a lag time between exposure to the antigen and maximal response. (Marshall et al, 2018, p.1). In the case of adaptive immunity, it depends on a toxin or other foreign substance which induces an immune response in the body, it then uses immunological memory to learn about the threat and enhance the immune response accordingly. Both types of immunity are related in the sense that they both act together to defend the body against infections and diseases while they both differ with the presence of immunological memory in adaptive and inmate possess no immunological memory. The immunological memory simply quickly and specifically recognizes an antigen that the body has previously encountered and initiate a corresponding immune response.

Context

“First up, supercharging your immune system with specific foods, like garlic and honey, is an old debunked idea. “Simply put, you cannot ‘boost’ your immune system through diet, and no specific food or supplement will prevent you catching COVID-19/Coronavirus,” said the British Dietetic Association in a statement.” (Wong J, 2020, p.23). Put differently consuming food like garlic or honey or going on a diet will not boost the immune system nor prevent the body from contracting a deadly virus.

“What we do know is that some nutrients are essential to a healthy immune system, such as vitamin C, zinc and selenium. Certain dietary patterns, such as eating plenty of fruit, vegetables and wholegrains, may help reduce the inflammation that can contribute to complications in covid-19.” (Wong J, 2020, p.23). This implies consuming nutrients that are essential to the body like Vitamin C, Vitamin D or Zinc can help the body when its in the process of fighting these deadly viruses and can help reduce complications. 

Working Definition

I believe a breakthrough research in decoding how the human immune system prevents and controls disease is essential. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and machine learning are something in my field that I feel will be critical to this breakthrough. As we know, the immune system is a complex network of cells and proteins that function to protect the skin, respiratory passages, intestinal tract, and other areas from foreign antigens and decoding it would be paramount to understanding how it fights illness and diseases. Utilizing Artificial Intelligence (AI) and machine learning can help better process and analyze the immune system and help find better ways to fight disease everywhere as data can be processed a billion times faster.

References

Marshall, J. S., Warrington, R., Watson, W., & Kim, H. L. (2018). An introduction to immunology and immunopathology. Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology, 14(1), N.PAG. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13223-018-0278-1

Warrington, R., Watson, W., Kim, H. L., & Antonetti, F. R. (2011). An introduction to immunology and immunopathology. Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology, 7(S1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1710-1492-7-S1-S1

Wong, J. (2020). Beware the corona diet. New Scientist, 246(3286), 23.

Offermans, S., Rosenthal, W. (2008). Encyclopedia of Molecular Pharmacology (2 volume set) (2^nd ed. 2008 ed.) Springer.