Overview
“Rhetoric is the ‘technique of using the means of expression to persuade’. The hallmark of all rhetoric is that it involves at least two levels of language, the primary or denoted (non-coded) and the figurative or connoted (coded).”
Aesthetics of Photography
You will be reading and annotating an excerpt from Roland Barthes’ 1977 essay, “Rhetoric of the Image.” This essay is challenging, but it contains important tools for deconstructing visual design using a semiotic approach, including “close reading” of visual images. The use of visual images to communicate meaning is called “Visual Rhetoric.”
Key Themes and Takeaways
Roland Barthes was a prominent French thinker associated with the field of semiotics and the Structuralist movement. His essay, “Rhetoric of the Image“, was written in response to a series of articles that Barthes had been following in a well-regarded linguistics journal. Barthes attempts to demonstrate that images contain most of the same semiological elements, ie, signs, signifiers, signifieds, as a spoken or written language.
Building on Saussure and Peirce, Barthes argued that when we construct a sign (encoding), its reception (decoding) does not take place in a vacuum. Our individual experience, society, and culture impact its meaning and how it is interpreted.
- Semiological elements (signs) are present in an image, yet according to Barthes, they differ from language in that they imitate nature, and are non-linear.
- Every image, especially those in advertisements, consists of 3 messages: (1) a linguistic message, (2) a non-coded iconic message, and (3) a coded iconic message
- The linguistic message of an image is the textual component that works alongside visual representational aspects of an image (most advertisements combine text and image)
- A linguistic message can direct the viewer toward a clear interpretation, or invite unexpected interpretations
- The non-coded iconic message of an image is the “denotational” (objective, literal, perceptual, innocent) meaning that can be understood from the image.
- The coded iconic message of an image is the “connotational” (subjective, cultural, symbolic, ideological) meaning that can be understood from the image.
- Images are rhetorical in the sense that coded elements perform functions similar to those of persuasive linguistic devices
Key Terms
- Encoding: creating a message for transmission (i.e., creation and distribution of an advertisement)
- Decoding: the process of interpreting a message (i.e., watching and interpreting an advertisement)
- Denotation: literal meaning (a message without code)
- Connotation: symbolic or cultural meaning (a coded message)
- Linguistic message: words used to convey meaning
- Non-coded iconic message: an image with literal meaning
- Coded iconic message: an image with a coded message
Helpful Resources
Because this can be a difficult text with many new terms, consider reviewing some or all of the following before reading the text:
- Full image with caption
- Video giving an overview of how to close read “Rhetoric of the Image“
- Breakdown of “Rhetoric of the Image” by Lesley Lanir
- Breakdown of “Rhetoric of the Image” by Hugh McCabe
- Full Text: Roland Barthes “Rhetoric of the Image“, Image – Music – Text, Translated by Stephen Heath. Hill and Wang, 1977. pg32
Instructions
1. Open the reading and enable Hypothesis
In a new tab, open the essay excerpt Roland Barthes’ “Rhetoric of the Image“ essay from Image – Music – Text, Translated by Stephen Heath. Hill and Wang, 1977.
If the reading above doesn’t automatically open Hypothesis, use Add “https://via.hypothes.is/” to the start of any web address (URL) or use the Paste a Link feature. Login to your account and select our group COMD Theory Summer2025 Group (IMPORTANT!) from the dropdown to make sure your annotations and highlights will be recorded in the group.
2. Consider these questions/prompts
As you read, make note of all key terms listed above, especially if their meaning is unclear. Respond to the following prompts:
- Define and identify the (3) three types of messages that Barthes breaks down in the Panzani advertisement: 1. linguistic 2. coded iconic 3. non-coded iconic
- How is the Panzani advertisement trying to persuade and influence the viewer?
- Include any questions or observations you have about the reading.
3. Read & Annotate.
Consider the questions/prompts listed above. Start to formulate the answers to these questions while you practice close reading with annotations. Share at least 3 annotations in the Hypothesis group, including your questions, definitions, and ideas with your classmates. Define any word or phrase that you don’t understand.
Add the tag: Visual Rhetoric to your annotations in Hypothesis.
4. Add your Reading Response in a comment on THIS post
Write a draft of your response in your software of choice. Check for grammar/spelling errors using Google Docs spell-grammar check or Grammarly. Check your word count.
Include links to at least (3) of your Hypothesis annotations in your response. In Hypothesis > select the Share icon > copy the URL. (see Using Hypothesis > Share)
When ready, add a comment at the bottom of this post and paste your response. Be sure to double-check the formatting before hitting “Post“!
5. Review and reply to your colleagues’ responses.
Acknowledge the responses of your classmates. Is there anything that surprised you or that you disagree with? Let them know. If you would like feedback from the Professor, please ask.
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In his essay Rhetoric of the Image, Roland Barthes looks at a Panzani advertisement to explain how images communicate different messages to viewers. He identifies three types of messages in the ad: the linguistic message, the coded iconic message, and the non-coded iconic message.
First, the linguistic message is all about the words in the ad. For example, the brand name “Panzani” tells the viewer the product’s name. This name also hints at “Italianness,” making the product feel more authentic and connected to Italian culture. The words help guide the viewer on how to interpret the ad.
Second, the coded iconic message includes the visual symbols that we need some background knowledge to understand. In the ad, things like the shopping bag full of pasta, tomatoes, and other ingredients suggest a trip to an Italian market. The red, green, and yellow colors remind viewers of the Italian flag. The overall layout looks like a still-life painting, adding a fancy, artistic touch. These visual details suggest that Panzani is authentic, fresh, and high-quality.
Third, the non-coded iconic message is the basic, literal image, which is what’s actually shown in the ad. It includes pasta, tomatoes, and onions. These things are just everyday items, easy to recognize without any special knowledge. However, the way they are arranged still adds meaning, like suggesting freshness and abundance.
Overall, the ad uses these three types of messages to make the product seem authentic, Italian, fresh, and complete. It tries to make viewers feel like Panzani offers a genuine taste of Italy and everything they need to make a proper Italian meal. This approach influences the viewer by making the product feel appealing, convenient, and special.
Hi Brianna, when I was reading the excerpt I saw Roland Barthes ideas as a little complex but, I really like how clearly you were able to explain the three types of messages that Barthes speaks about. You provided specific examples which perfectly illustrated how each message works.
After reading Roland Barthes’ “Rhetoric of the Image,” I was struck by how a single advertisement can contain multiple layers of meaning far beyond simply showing a product. Through his analysis of the Panzani ad, Barthes breaks down the image into three levels of messages: the linguistic message, the coded iconic message, and the non-coded iconic message. His explanation revealed how images communicate through both direct signs and deeper cultural codes.
What stood out to me most was how cultural background shapes interpretation. For instance, the use of red, green, and yellow colors, along with food items like tomatoes and pasta, strongly suggests “Italian-ness” to a French audience. Yet for Italians, these elements might feel too ordinary to be noticed as symbols. This was a new perspective for me, it showed that meaning in visual design is not universal, but depends on cultural familiarity and context.
I also found Barthes’ comparison to still-life paintings (nature morte) quite compelling. The composition of the ad, with visual weight placed near the bottom and the careful arrangement of items, follows traditional principles of balance and stability, much like in classical art. This adds an artistic, almost timeless feel to the image, making it more persuasive and aesthetically pleasing.
While Barthes describes the linguistic message as something that simply requires literacy, I believe typography itself carries emotional and visual meaning. The choice of font can influence how the message feels, whether it comes across as warm, modern, elegant, or serious. Typography doesn’t just deliver words; it’s part of the visual language that shapes interpretation.
Overall, Barthes’ theory reminded me that analyzing images isn’t just about observation, but about understanding cultural, social, and symbolic layers. It made me reflect more deeply on how I view design and how I can embed more thoughtful meaning into my own work in the future.
https://hyp.is/6zUrakILEfCiiKvIumWcvg/openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/spevackcomd3504fa24/files/2022/11/Barthes_PanzaniUpdatedImage.pdf
https://hyp.is/_vwRZHwmEe-kQJMEuGMnBw/openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/spevackcomd3504fa24/files/2022/11/Barthes_PanzaniUpdatedImage.pdf
https://hyp.is/W5U19kIOEfCLb6f0q2YohA/openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/spevackcomd3504fa24/files/2022/11/Barthes_PanzaniUpdatedImage.pdf
I agree with you that the typography itself can also carry emotional and visual meaning. The typography itself is also visual, and to your point can also shape interpretation as you said.
I also agree with you and found that through this reading response that analyzing images is more than just observing and that having context that is cultural, and social helps convey messages on a deeper level.
Both of your comments on typography had me thinking about what I feel from the typography of the ad itself and its maybe unintentional feelings because of how old the branding is. To me, it feels nostalgic and warm because of their font choices, which might just have been the style at the time. Maybe this is just always the consequence of the passage of time on design.
Also looked up the current logo and I think it stinks! Not necessarily for the typography, but for everything else. It comes off too modern which I think feels a little off for pasta. We all know pasta isn’t new!
Roland Barthes’ “Rhetoric of an Image” takes a deep dive into the Panzani advertisement and breaks down how different messages are communicated to viewers. He identifies the three types of messages in the ad: linguistic, coded iconic, and non-coded iconic. The analysis explains how both direct messages and cultural messages are communicated.
Define and identify the (3) three types of messages that Barthes breaks down in the Panzani advertisement: 1. Linguistic 2. coded iconic 3. non-coded iconic
The first message is linguistic, meaning the literal words or text used to convey the meaning. The linguistic message in this particular ad is conveyed through the captions and the labels.
The second message is the coded iconic, which is the connotational message that can be understood from the image itself. We must have some knowledge to understand it. In this case, the idea that this scene is a return from the market is one, and we can see this or find meaning from this because we have a half-open bag that spills out the provisions over the table as described in the text. We also have the red, green, and yellow color scheme, which is a call-back of sorts to the Italian flag.
The third message is the non-coded iconic, meaning the denotational or literal meaning that can be understood from the image. In this Panzani ad, the non-coded iconic is the pasta itself, tomatoes, onions, and the shopping bag. These are items we all can recognize, no matter who you are or where you are.
How is the Panzani advertisement trying to persuade and influence the viewer?
The Panzani ad uses these three types of messaging to persuade and influence the viewer. The use of color and associating it with the Italian flag makes the product seem authentically Italian. The ad also utilizes fresh produce and the idea of the “shopping bag” or sachet to represent freshness and return from the market to the viewer/audience. Utilizing the French language in the ad also feels like it is trying to convey to the viewer that the product is “fancy” or luxurious because that is what we sometimes associate with French. Overall, the ad attempts to influence the viewer and persuade them that this specific product is authentic.
https://hyp.is/j3ayZkNbEfCF3oOOveo_ew/openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/spevackcomd3504fa24/files/2022/11/Barthes_PanzaniUpdatedImage.pdf
https://hyp.is/wXXEGkNaEfCGNi_OlU45ew/openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/spevackcomd3504fa24/files/2022/11/Barthes_PanzaniUpdatedImage.pdf
https://hyp.is/RQkGEkNaEfC8t9NZnet7PQ/openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/spevackcomd3504fa24/files/2022/11/Barthes_PanzaniUpdatedImage.pdf
Hey Drew,
The French on the bottom translates to “luxury,” so it’s definitely the vibe they were going for. I also think we’re viewing it as even fancier cause we’re English speakers. It parallels how the ad was made for the French and they’re thinking about how it’s more authentic cause of the Italian signaling. We are all being manipulated in the same ways all over.
After reading Roland Barthes’ “Rhetoric of the Image,” I was struck by how a single advertisement can contain multiple layers of meaning far beyond simply promoting a product. Through his analysis of the Panzani ad, Barthes dissects the image into three distinct messages: the linguistic message (explicit text and labels), the coded iconic message (symbolic and cultural connotations), and the non-coded iconic message (the literal, denotative representation of objects). His framework reveals how images communicate not just through direct signs but through deeply embedded cultural associations that shape interpretation.
What stood out to me most was Barthes’ emphasis on how cultural context influences meaning. For example, he notes that the combination of tomatoes, peppers, and the tricolor hues (red, green, and yellow) functions as a visual code for “Italianicity” (Barthes). However, he clarifies that this connotation relies on a specifically French cultural perspective—an Italian viewer might overlook these signs because they are too familiar. This was a revelation to me; it demonstrated that visual meaning is not universal but constructed through shared cultural knowledge. Barthes’ observation that “the knowledge it draws upon is already more particular; it is a specifically ‘French’ knowledge” underscores how advertisers strategically leverage stereotypes to evoke certain impressions (Barthes).
Another compelling aspect of Barthes’ analysis is his comparison of the ad’s composition to still-life paintings (nature morte). He points out that the arrangement of objects “evok[es] the memory of innumerable alimentary paintings,” lending the advertisement an artistic, almost timeless quality (Barthes). This connection to classical art elevates the ad’s aesthetic appeal while subtly reinforcing ideas of abundance and tradition. It made me realize how visual rhetoric borrows from established artistic conventions to create persuasive, emotionally resonant imagery.
While Barthes describes the linguistic message as primarily functional—requiring only “a knowledge of writing and of French”—I found myself questioning whether typography and design choices also contribute to connotative meaning (Barthes). For instance, the font style, color, and placement of the word “Panzani” might evoke warmth or authenticity, adding another layer of signification. Barthes acknowledges the linguistic message’s dual role (denotative and connotative), but I believe the visual presentation of text itself communicates beyond mere words.
Ultimately, Barthes’ essay reshaped how I approach visual analysis. His breakdown of the Panzani ad revealed that images are dense with cultural, aesthetic, and symbolic codes, all working to persuade and convey meaning. This has made me more attentive to the subconscious messages embedded in design, whether in advertisements, media, or even my own creative work. Understanding these layers not only sharpens critical thinking but also highlights the power of visual communication in shaping perception.
Works Cited
Barthes, Roland. “Rhetoric of the Image.” Image, Music, Text, translated by Stephen Heath, Hill and Wang, 1977, pp. 32-51.
https://hyp.is/miccZEOcEfCuDqtpQtsbkg/openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/spevackcomd3504fa24/files/2022/11/Barthes_PanzaniUpdatedImage.pdf
https://hyp.is/0xHhdkOcEfCpeV_-_Lo1kg/openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/spevackcomd3504fa24/files/2022/11/Barthes_PanzaniUpdatedImage.pdf
https://hyp.is/M_JxmkOdEfCrR5cCsOSnTg/openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/spevackcomd3504fa24/files/2022/11/Barthes_PanzaniUpdatedImage.pdf
Hi Joseph!
As a digital artist myself I know and understand how images and advertisements can portray more than one message but see how deep and how many layers the Panzani ad has and how meaningful and successful it is also struck me. The meaning both literal and figuratively allows for the audience to see and really relate to the products.
Barthes breaks down the Panzani advertisement into three messages, or three way to communicate a message, linguistic message, coded iconic message, and non-coded iconic message. Each of these play a very important role in the way company’s or artist communicate with various audiences.
Panzani uses, of course, the name of it’s brand on all of the packaging, which is visible on the products in the advertisement. Doing so allows for the product to speak for itself without having it’s brand name in big flashy lettering across the ad, thus not taking away from the product or the beauty of the advertisement itself. This would be considered a linguistic message, a message communicated through language, either spoken or written.
Barthes also identifies the use of coded iconic messages, the symbolic or connoted meanings within an image, distinct from its literal content. In this ad Panzani uses representation of Italy such as the red and green colors of the Italian Flag. We also see what is in the shopping bag, which is Panzani products and fresh vegetables. This is the type of bag used at an Italian market where only the best fresh products are sold, portraying that Panzani products are as fresh as they come.
Non-coded iconic messages are also used in this Panzani ad according to Barthes. Non-coded iconic messages are the literal denotation of the photograph, in this case the ad. We see in the ad a tomato among other vegetables, a string bag, and Panzani products. Showcasing the simplistic, yet beautiful possibilities of the Panzani products.
https://hyp.is/ySHo5EV-EfCXkyt2xj73_Q/openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/spevackcomd3504fa24/files/2022/11/Barthes_PanzaniUpdatedImage.pdf
https://hyp.is/WZ5T9kVKEfCJNrddHBUShw/openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/spevackcomd3504fa24/files/2022/11/Barthes_PanzaniUpdatedImage.pdf
https://hyp.is/C8WXGEV6EfCEbuMfuQWMyQ/openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/spevackcomd3504fa24/files/2022/11/Barthes_PanzaniUpdatedImage.pdf
Roland Barthes’ “Rhetoric of the Image” offers a groundbreaking framework for analyzing visual media through semiotics. His examination of the Panzani advertisement reveals how images communicate through layered systems of meaning that operate on both explicit and implicit levels. By focusing on three key passages from the text, we can trace Barthes’ methodological approach and assess its implications for visual analysis.
The Literal and Symbolic Dimensions of Reading Images
Barthes establishes a fundamental distinction between different levels of image interpretation when he observes: “deprived of all knowledge, I continue to ‘read’ the image, to ‘understand’ that it assembles in a common space a number of identifiable (nameable) objects, not merely shapes and colours” (Barthes). This statement captures the non-coded iconic message – the most basic level of recognition where we identify objects without cultural mediation. However, Barthes quickly moves beyond this literal reading to demonstrate how images function as complex sign systems. His analysis reveals that what we might initially perceive as simple representation actually involves sophisticated cultural coding that transforms objects into carriers of meaning.
Cultural Coding and the Construction of Meaning
The advertisement’s symbolic operation becomes clear through Barthes’ identification of multiple connotative signs: “Thus there are four signs for this image and we will assume that they form a coherent whole (for they are all discontinuous), require a generally cultural knowledge, and refer back to signifieds each of which is global (for example, Italianicity), imbued with euphoric values” (Barthes). This passage demonstrates how visual elements combine to create ideological messages. The “Italianicity” concept particularly illustrates how cultural stereotypes become naturalized through visual representation. Barthes shows that the advertisement doesn’t just depict products but constructs an entire value system around national identity and culinary tradition, all conveyed through strategic visual codes.
Language as a Dual Signifying System
Barthes further complicates the analysis by revealing how linguistic elements operate on multiple levels: “the sign Panzani gives not simply the name of the firm but also, by its assonance, an additional signified, that of ‘Italianicity'” (Barthes). This demonstrates how even the simplest brand name functions as both denotative marker and connotative signifier. The phonetic qualities of language thus become another tool for ideological communication, reinforcing the visual messages through auditory association. This multilayered approach to textual analysis suggests that no element in advertising is neutral or accidental – every component serves specific communicative functions.
Critical Evaluation and Contemporary Relevance
While Barthes’ methodology provides powerful tools for deconstructing visual rhetoric, his analysis raises several questions for contemporary media studies. The concept of “Italianicity” seems particularly tied to mid-20th century European advertising contexts – would these same visual codes operate similarly in global digital media? Additionally, Barthes’ focus on print advertising might be expanded to account for interactive and moving-image media that dominate contemporary visual culture. Nevertheless, his fundamental insight about the constructed nature of visual meaning remains essential for critical media literacy.
Barthes’ analysis ultimately teaches us that images never simply show – they always argue. By unpacking the Panzani advertisement’s visual rhetoric, he demonstrates how everyday media naturalizes cultural values and ideological positions. This approach remains invaluable for understanding how visual communication shapes our perceptions of identity, nationality, and consumer culture.
Works Cited
Barthes, Roland. “Rhetoric of the Image.” Image, Music, Text, translated by Stephen Heath, Hill and Wang, 1977, pp. 32-51.
https://hyp.is/miccZEOcEfCuDqtpQtsbkg/openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/spevackcomd3504fa24/files/2022/11/Barthes_PanzaniUpdatedImage.pdf
https://hyp.is/0xHhdkOcEfCpeV_-_Lo1kg/openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/spevackcomd3504fa24/files/2022/11/Barthes_PanzaniUpdatedImage.pdf
https://hyp.is/M_JxmkOdEfCrR5cCsOSnTg/openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/spevackcomd3504fa24/files/2022/11/Barthes_PanzaniUpdatedImage.pdf
Barthes’ analysis of the Panzini advertisement led him to concluding there are three types of messages present within it: linguistic, coded iconic, and non-coded iconic. The linguistic message is all of the text found within the ad. This includes both the French text on the bottom and the Panzani brand labels on the products. Within the linguistic message, he finds it both to be denotational and connotational. The denotational part of the linguistic message is the French on the bottom explicitly saying what the products are and that they’re “Luxury Italian” goods. While the connotational part is the brand name itself, Panzani. To the audience, the French, it creates an authenticity to the products. In Italy, Panzani as a name would be viewed plainly and commonplace.
The coded iconic message of the advertisement are all the implied feelings we get from the image. He states that the bag being unpacked implies a trip back from the market and that it’s more personal than “mechanical.” The colors of the objects are red, white, and green, the same colors as the Italian Flag. This once again strengthens the metonym of Italian authenticity. Lastly, he mentions how it’s placed similarly to still life art. I think this helps add an air of luxury due to how we might view similar paintings as high art.
Finally, the non-coded iconic message is just what we objectively see. The tomato is a tomato, the string-bag is a string-bag, and the pasta is pasta. While it does seem very simple, he does state that it’s an almost anthropological knowledge to understand this because we still have had to learn what the objects pictured are.
All of these messages are meant to influence the viewer to buy the product by pulling at multiple urges and emotions. You can trust the quality cause it’s real Italian! You can buy it at the store just like everyone else! And if you use them you’ll also be a little fancy, can’t you tell from the artsy aesthetics?
As someone who grew up on Staten Island and around so many Italian food products in stores the advertisement definitely feels “normal.” I definitely feel more like Barthes’ theoretical Italian than the French viewer. However, I think this also shows the success of such an ad because it feels at home with brands like Barilla or Rao’s.
https://hyp.is/KKOT0EW7EfCfBu9zrL8ezg/openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/spevackcomd3504fa24/files/2022/11/Barthes_PanzaniUpdatedImage.pdf
https://hyp.is/aqo87EWtEfCwxpPcS6idWQ/openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/spevackcomd3504fa24/files/2022/11/Barthes_PanzaniUpdatedImage.pdf
https://hyp.is/NaBhWEWsEfCg_e_RfTzYbg/openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/spevackcomd3504fa24/files/2022/11/Barthes_PanzaniUpdatedImage.pdf
Great breakdown! You clearly explained Barthes’ three messages and made the theory easy to follow. I really like your personal example it shows how cultural context changes how we read images. You could also consider how these Italian cues have become so normalized in global marketing that many people today might not even question them.
Hi Nichola, I truly appreciate you bringing home the reference to NYC ethnic culture, definitely a layered response to Barthes’ analysis of ethnicity in visual images! Nice work!
The excerpt Rhetoric of the Image, the Roland Barthes examines how different advertisements convey different messages to the viewer. Analyzing the Panzani pasta advertisement, Roland Barthes is able to identify three categories of messages, linguist, coded iconic, and non-coded iconic. Each playing a different role in influencing the persuasive impact of the viewer.
The initial message, linguistic, consists of the actual words found within the image, such as captions and product labels. It communicates a straightforward meaning of “Panzani” and an implied notion of “Italianicity.” This emphasizes the authenticity and cultural association in Italian culture .
The coded iconic message is shown through symbolic imagery that conveys meaning through cultural context. For example, a spilled grocery bag signifies freshness, while the color palette and ingredients is very reminiscent of the Italian flag. This interpretation is made through cultural knowledge and existing stereotypes.
Lastly, the non-coded iconic message refers to the literal representation of familiar objects like pasta, onions, tomatoes, and sauce. Requiring only a basic visual image, not cultural knowledge. This can be referred to as a universal meaning which can be recognized by anyone.
The advertisements use a combination of meanings to persuade the viewers. It uses words and imagery to send a sense of freshness, authenticity, and Italian background. Drawing the viewer to a genuine taste of Italy. These strategies impact the viewer emotionally and culturally, directly leading Pazani to create a mental connection of high quality Italian tradition.
https://hyp.is/4hnntkZuEfC8r_vZduKKgQ/openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/spevackcomd3504fa24/files/2022/11/Barthes_PanzaniUpdatedImage.pdf
https://hyp.is/8phaOkZwEfCvVBP2aUzeBQ/openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/spevackcomd3504fa24/files/2022/11/Barthes_PanzaniUpdatedImage.pdf
https://hyp.is/DoV3KEZxEfCBOYtF8smYGw/openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/spevackcomd3504fa24/files/2022/11/Barthes_PanzaniUpdatedImage.pdf